1、Chapter 1 Introduction What is linguistics? 什么是语言学A The definition of linguisticsLinguistics is generally defined as the scientific study of language (对语言进行的科学研究)Process of linguistic study: Certain linguistic facts are observed, generalization are formed; Hypotheses are formulated; Hypotheses are t
2、ested by further observations; A linguistic theory is constructed.B The scope of linguistics General linguistics 普通语言学: the study of language as a whole 从整体研究1.Phonetics: the general study of the characteristics of speech sounds (or the study of the phonic medium of language) (How speech sounds are
3、produced and classified)2.Phonology: is essentially the description of the systems and patterns of speech sounds in a language. (How sounds form systems and function to convey meaning)3.Morphology: the study of the way in which morphemes are arranged to form words (how morphemes are combined to form
4、 words)4.Syntax: the study of those rules that govern the combination of words to form permissible sentences (how morphemes and words are combined to form sentences)5.Semantics: the study of meaning in abstraction6.Pragmatics: the study of meaning in context of useSociolinguistics: the study of lang
5、uage with reference to societyPsycholinguistics: the study of language with reference to the workings of the mindApplied linguistics: the application of linguistics principles and theories to language teaching and learningAnthropological linguistics, neurological linguistics; mathematical linguistic
6、s; mathematical linguistics; computational linguisticsC Some important distinctions in linguistics Prescriptive vs. Descriptive 规定性与描写性 Synchronic vs. Diachronic 共时性与历时性（现代英语多研究共时性）The description of a language at some point in time;The description of a language as it changes through time. Speech an
7、d writing 言语与文字Spoken language is primary, not the written Langue and parole 语言和言语Proposed by Swiss linguists F. de Sausse (sociological)Langue: refers to the abstract linguistic system shared by all the members of a speech community（指一个话语社团所有成员共有的语言系统）Parole: refers to the realization of langue in
8、actual use（指语言在实际运用中的实现） Competence and performance 语言能力与语言运用Proposed by the American linguist N. Chomsky (psychological)Competence: the ideal users knowledge of the rules of his language.（理想的语言使用者关于语言规则方面的知识）Performance: the actual realization of this knowledge in linguistics communication.（这种知识在语言
9、交流中的具体实现）What is language? 什么是语言A The definition of languageLanguage is a system of arbitrary vocal symbols used for human communication. (语言是一个具有任意性、用于人类交流的语音符号系统。)a) System: combined together according to rules （根据规则组合在一起）b) Arbitrary: no intrinsic connection between a linguistic symbol and what t
10、he symbol stands for（语言符号和符号所代表的事物之间没有内在的必然的联系）c) Vocal: the primary medium is sound for all languages （所有语言的首要媒介都是声音）d) Human: language is human-specific （语言是人类所独有的）BDesign features (unique properties): the defining properties of human language that distinguish it from any animal system of communic
11、ation （识别特征是指人类语言区别于任何动物交际系统的本质特征）Arbitrariness（任意性）There is no logical or natural connection between a linguistic form (either sound or word) and its meaning.While language is arbitrary by nature, it is not entirely arbitrary.（意义和语音之间没有什么逻辑的联系；虽然是任意性的，但并非完全任意）a) echo of the sounds of objects or act
12、ivities: onomatopoeic words （拟声词）b) some compound words （某些复合词）Productivity （能产性，创造性）Language is productive in that it makes possible the construction and interpretation of new signals by its users. (Creativity or open-endedness) Duality（双重结构性，两重性或二元性）Language is organized at two levels or layers si
13、multaneously. The lower or basic level is a structure of sounds which are meaningless. The higher level is morpheme or word (double articulation)（语言是一个系统，包含两组结构或者两个层面。在较低/基本层面存在着语音结构，其自身没有什么意义；较高层面存在着意义单位；结构的双重性/语言的双层性）Displacement（跨时空性，移位性）Language can be used to refer to contexts removed from the
14、immediate situations of the speaker (refer to past and future time and to other locations)Cultural transition（文化传递性）While human capacity for language has a genetic basis (everyone was born with the ability to acquire a language), the details of any language system are not genetically transmitted, bu
15、t instead have to be taught and learnt.The above 5 properties may be taken as the core features of human language. Chapter 2 Phonology 音位学A The definition of phonetics（语音学）Phonetics: the study of the phonic medium of language: it is concerned with all the sounds that occur in the worlds languages.（是
16、指对语言的语音媒介进行的研究，它关注语言世界中的所有语音）Articulatory phonetics: the study of how speech sounds are made, or articulated.（发音语音学）Acoustic phonetics: deals with the physical properties of speech as sound waves in the air.（听觉语音学）Auditory (or perceptual) phonetics: deals with the perception, via the ear, of speech
17、sounds.（声学语音学）B Organs of speech （发音器官）Voiceless:清音 when the vocal cords are spread apart, the air from the lungs passes between them unimpeded.Voiced (Voicing): 浊音 when the vocal cords 声带 are drawn together, the air from the lungs repeated pushes them apart as it passes through, creating a vibratio
18、n effect.All the English vowels 元音 are typically voiced (voicing).The important cavities:The pharyngeal cavity 咽腔The oral cavity 口腔The nasal cavity 鼻腔其他部位：Lips 唇 1, teeth 齿 2, teeth ridge (alveolus)齿龈 3, hard palate 硬腭 4, soft palate (velum)软腭 5, uvula 小舌 6, tip of tongue 舌尖 7, blade of tongue 舌面 8,
19、 back of tongue 舌后 9, vocal cords 声带 10C Orthographic representation of speech sounds：Broad and narrow transcriptions （语音的正字法表征：宽式/窄式标音） IPA (International Phonetic Alphabet/Association 国际语音协会/国际音标)Broad transcription: the transcription with letter-symbols only （代表字母的符号）Narrow transcription: the tra
20、nscription with letter-symbols together with the diacritics （变音符）E.g.:lli:f- a clear l (no diacritic)lbild-a dark l ()lhelp-a dental l ( )ppit-an aspirated ph(h 表示送气 )pspit-an unaspirated p (no diacritic)n5bQtna syllabic nasal n (7)D Classification of English consonants（英语辅音的分类）In terms of manner of
21、 articulation 根据发音方法分 (the manner in which obstruction is created)Stops 闭塞音: the obstruction is total or complete, and then going abruptlyp/b, t/d, k/gFricatives 摩擦音: the obstruction is partial, and the air is forced through a narrow passage in the monthf/v, s/z, /, /, h (approximant)Affricates 塞擦音:
22、 the obstruction, complete at first, is released slowly as in fricatives t/d Liquids 流音: the airflow is obstructed but is allowed to escape through the passage between part or parts of the tongue and the roof of the mouthla lateral sound; r retroflexGlides 滑音: w, j (semi-vowels)Liquid + glides + h a
23、pproximantsNasals 鼻音: the nasal passage is opened by lowering the soft palate to let air pass through itm, n, By place of articulation 根据发音部位分 (the place where obstruction is created)bilabial 双唇音: upper and lower lips are brought together to create obstructions p/b, w(velar)labiodentals 唇齿音: the low
24、er lip and the upper teeth f/vdental 齿音: the tip of the tongue and the upper front teeth /alveolar 齿龈音: the front part of the tongue on the alveolar ridge t/d, s/z, n, l, rpalatal 腭音: tongue in the middle of the palate /, t/d, jvelars 软腭因: the back of the tongue against the velum k, g, glottal 喉音: t
25、he glottal is the space between the vocal cords in the larynx hE Classification of English vowels （英语元音的分类） The highest position of the tongue: front, central, back; The openness of the mouth: close, semi-close, semi-open, open; The roundness (shape) of the month (the lips):All the front, central vo
26、wels are unrounded vowels except BAll the back vowels, except A: are rounded vowels The length of the sound: long vowels how they are produced, how they differ from each other, what phonetic features they possess, how they can be classified, etc.Phonology, on the other hand, is interested in the sys
27、tem of sounds of a particular languages; it aims to discover how speech sounds in a language form patterns and how these sounds are used to convey meaning in linguistic communication.G Phone, phoneme, and allophone（音素、音位、音位变体）Phone: a phone is a phonetic unit or segment （因素是一个语音单位或者说语音段） Phoneme: a
28、phoneme is a phonological unit; it is a unit of distinctive value, it is an abstract unit. （音位是一个音位学的单位，而且是一个有区别意义的单位，是一个抽象的单位）Allophone: the different phones which can represent a phoneme in different phonetic environments are called the allophones of that phoneme.（在不同的语音环境下代表某个音位的音素被称为该音位的音位变体）H P
29、honemic contrast, complementary distribution, minimal pair（音位对立、互补分布、最小对立体）Phonemic contrast: when two phonemes can occur in the same environments in two words and they distinguish meaning, theyre in phonemic contrast.E.g. pin plural 复数Verb + -s, -ing, -ed, -en 3rd person present singular 第三人称单数; pr
30、esent participle 现在分词; past tense 过去式, past participle 过去分词 Adj + -er, -est comparative 比较级; superlative 最高级 C Derivational vs. Inflectional 派生（范畴/语类）和曲折（语法标志）Inflectional morphemes never change the grammatical category of a word 只表示语法标志（时态、数、格）Inflectional morphemes influence the whole category 词的范
31、畴;Derivational morphemes are oppositeOrder: root (stem) + derivational + inflectional 词根/词干+派生+ 曲折D Morphological Rules 形态学规则（词的构成方式 词素是怎样组合成为词）N. +ly a.; A. +ly adv.; guard overgeneralizationE Morphs and allomorphs 语素和语素变体Morphs: the actual forms used to realize morphemesAllomorphs: a set of morphs
32、, all of which are versions of one morpheme, a morpheme may have alternate shapes or phonetic forms. e.g.map-maps sdog-dogs zwatch-watches izmouse-mice aiox-oxen ntooth-teeth sheep-sheepEach of the underlined part is called an allomorph of plural morpheme.F Word-formation process（构词法） Coinagethe inv
33、ention of totally new terms （创造全新的词） Borrowingthe taking over of words form other languages Compounding a joining of two separate words to produce a single form （组成复合词） Blending taking over the beginning of one word and joining it to the end of other word Clipping a word of more than one syllable re
34、duced to a shorter form Back formation a process by which new words are formed by taking away the suffix of an existing word Conversion category change, functional shift Acronyms new words are formed from the initial letters of a set of other words Derivation the new words are formed by the addition
35、 of affixes to the roots, stems, or words（添加词缀） Abbreviation a shortened form of a word or phrase which represents the complete form （缩短原词）Chapter 4 Syntax 句法学A The definition of syntaxSyntax: A branch of linguistics that studies how words are combined to form sentences and rules that govern the for
36、mation of sentences（句法学是研究词是如何组成句子以及如何支配句子构成规则的一个语言学分支）C Types of sentencesSimple sentence 简单句: consists of a single clause which contains a subject and a predicate and stands alone as its own sentence.Coordinate (Compound) sentence 并列（复合）句: contains two clauses joined by a linking word called coord
37、inating conjunctions, such as “and”, “by”, “or”Complex sentence 复杂句: contains two, or more, clauses, one of which is incorporated into the otherEmbedded clause 子句 matrix clause 主句 subordinator functions as a grammatical unit may be completeBSome categories（范畴）Syntactic categories: refer to a word or
38、 a phrase that performs a particular grammatical function, such as the subject or the predicate 句法范畴Lexical categories: (parts of speech)词汇范畴Major lexical categories (open categories):N. V. Adj. Adv.Minor lexical categories (closed categories):Det. Aux. Prep. Pron. Conj. Int.Phrasal categories: NP,
39、VP, PP, AP 短语范畴CCombinational rulesAre small in number Yield all the possible sentencesRule out the impossible ones phrase structure rules (rewrite rules)（短语结构规则）S NP VP (A sentence consists of, or is rewritten as, a noun phrase and a verb phrase)NP (det.限定词) (Adj.) N (PP) (S) “”：包括/ 分为VP (qual.修饰词)
40、V (NP) (POP) (S) “( )”：内部的成分可以省略AP (deg.程度词)A (PP) (S) “”：可以选择附加其他补语PP (deg.)P NPX- bar theoryHead an obligatory word that givers the phrase its nameXP or X-phraseXP (Specifier) X (complement)Formula:X” Spec XX-bar theory (X-bar schema)X X complDTransformational rules 转换规则D-structure and S-structure
41、 深层结构和表层结构Deep structure: the structure that corresponds most closely to the meaningful grouping of words. It is abstract, which gives the meaning of a sentence and which itself is not pronounceable.Surface structure: linear arrangement of words as they are pronounced. A surface structure is relativ
42、ely concrete, and gives the form of a sentence as it is used in communication.Two levels of syntactic representation of a sentence structure:One that exists before movement takes placeThe other that occurs after movement takes placeFormal linguistic exploration:D-structure: phrase structure rules +
43、lexiconSentence at the level of D-structureThe application of syntactic movement rules transforms a sentence from D-structure level to S-structure levelTransformational-generative line of analysisESyntactic RelationsSequential(syntagmatic) relations 组合关系The linear ordering of the words and the phras
44、es within a sentenceSubstitutional(paradigmatic) relations (聚合关系)If the words or phrases in a sentence can be replaced by words and phrases outside the sentence and the resulting sentence is still grammatical, then we say the replacing forms and replaced forms have paradigmatic relations.F Immediate
45、 Constituent Analysis （IC Analysis）IC Analysis is to simply divide a sentence into its constituent elements without at first knowing what these elements are.The principle is that we take a sentence and cut it into two and then cut these parts into two and continue with this segmentation until we rea
46、ch the smallest grammatical unit, the morphemesLabeled IC analysissyntactic categories criteria in judging syntactic categories:1) morphological features(inflectional and derivational affixes they take) (number,case gender etc.)2) syntactic contexts in which the linguistic forms can occurCategorythe
47、 determiner (Det.)boy noun (n.) often qualifierplays verb (v.)a Det.very degree word (Deg)small modifier ball n.must, should auxiliary (Aux.)and, but, or conjunction (Con.)G The hierarchical structure of sentence A sentence can be analyzed into constituents. Conversely, constituents at different lev
48、els can combine to form increasingly larger units.Sentencesare analyzed intoclausesare analyzed intophrasesare analyzed intowordsare analyzed into morphemes sentencessentencesare used to buildclausesare used to buildphrasesare used to buildwordsare used to buildmorphemes So traditionally, sentences are assumed to be made of individual words in a linear di
