1、1戴版语言学Chapter One-IntroductionPart one-What is linguistics?1. Definition-linguistics is generally defined as the scientific study of language.Scientific means it is based on the systematic investigation of linguistic data, conducted with reference to some general theory of language structure.No Arti
2、cle before language in this definition means that linguistics studies language in general.Linguists task: basically study and understand the general principles upon which all languages are built.Interest of linguists is “what is said”2. The scopes of linguisticsGeneral linguistics-the study of langu
3、age as a whole-the core of linguisticsPhonetics-the study of sounds used in linguistic communication.Phonology-the study of how sounds are put together and used to convey meanings in communication.Morphology-the study of the way in which the symbols are arranged and combined to form words.Syntax-the
4、 study of the rules for sentence formationSemantics-the study of meaning.Pragmatics-the study of meaning in the context of language use.Above are made up of the core of linguisticsSociolinguistics-the study of all social aspects of language and its relation with society from the core of the branch.P
5、sycholinguistics-the study of language processing, comprehending and production, as well as language acquisition.Applied linguistics-the application of linguistic theories and principles to language teaching , especially the teaching of foreign and second languages.3. Some important distinctions in
6、linguistics.(1) prescriptive vs. descriptiveprescriptive-the linguistic study aims to lay down rules for “correct and standard” behavior in using language, i.e. to tell people what they should say and what they should not say.Descriptive-the linguistic study aims to describe and analyze the language
7、 people actually use.Modern linguistics is mostly descriptive.(2) Synchronic vs. diachronicSynchronic-the description of a language at some point of time in history.Diachronic-the description of a language as it changes through time-the historical development of language over a period of time-anothe
8、r name: historical linguistics.A synchronic approach enjoys priority over a diachronic one.(3) Speech vs. writingTwo major media of linguistic communicationSpeech is prior to writing: (1)writing system is always “invented” by its users to record speech.2(2)speech plays a greater role than writing in
9、 information conveyance.(3)speech is acquired as mother tongue while writing is learned and taught.(4)speech reveals true features of human speech while writing language is only the “revised” record of speech.(4) Langue vs. paroleProposed by Swiss linguist-F. de Saussure-sociological view.Purpose: d
10、iscover the regularities governing the actual use of language and make them the subjects of study of linguistics.Langue-the abstract linguistic system shared by all the members of s speech community.-abstract it is interested in all the speech sounds used in all human languages-how they are produced
11、, how they differ from each other, what phonetic features they possess, how they can be classified.2 Phonology aims to discover how speech sounds in a language from patterns and how these sounds are used to convey meaning in linguistic communication.E.g. allophones clear l and dark l:Phonetically sp
12、eaking, they are interested in the differences how they are pronounced.Phonologically speaking, they are the same in functioning conveyance of the meanings.2. Phone, Phoneme, and Allophonephone : The speech sound we use when speaking a language, which does not necessarily distinguish meaning in the
13、English language.phoneme : The smallest unit of sound in a language which can distinguish two sounds.allophone : any different forms of the same phoneme in different phonetic environments, e.g. clear l and dark l of the same l, aspirated p and unaspirated p of the same p in different phonetic enviro
14、nments.3. Phonemic contrast, complementary distribution, and minimal pairphonemic contrast : two similar sounds occur in the same environment and distinguish meaning. E.g. b in bit and p in pit form phonemic plementary distribution : allophones of the same phoneme and they dont distinguish meaning b
15、ut complement each other in distribution. E.g. clear l and dark l respectively in the pronunciation of light and feel.minimal pair: two different forms are identical in every way except one sound and occurs in the 6same position. The two sounds are said to form a minimal pair. E.g. bat and bet are a
16、 minimal pair.4. Some Rules in Phonology1 sequential rules: The rules to govern the combination of sounds in a particular language.2 assimilation rule: The rule assimilates one sound to another by copying a feature of a sequential phoneme, thus making the two phones similar.3 deletion rule: The rule
17、 that a sound is to be deleted although it is orthographically represented.5. Suprasegmental Features-stress, tone, intonationsuprasegmental features: The phonemic features that occur above the level of the segments-syllable, word, sentence are called suprasegmental features, which include stress, t
18、one and intonation.1 Stress:Classification: word stress & sentence stress.Word Stress:1 The location of stress in English distinguishes meaning.A shift of stress may change the part of speech of a word from a noun to a verb although its spelling remains unchanged. E.g. impott (n)-import (v), record
19、(n)-record (v)blackbird (compound)-black bird (noncompound)2 The meaning-distinctive role played by word stress is also manifested in the combinations of ing forms and nouns. E.g. dining room(compound)-sleeping baby (noncompound)Sentence Stress:Sentence stress: It refers to the relative force given
20、to the components of a sentence.he parts of speech that are normally stressed in an English sentence are: N, V, Adj., Adv., Numerals, demonstrative pronouns. E.g. He is driving my car.-He drive, my, car.2 Tone:tone: Tones are pitch variations, which are caused by the differing rates of vibration of
21、the vocal cords.Tone (pitch variation) can distinguish meaning in such languages as Chinese, but English is not a tone language.3 Intonation:intonation: When pitch, stress and sound length are tied to the sentence rather than the word in isolation, they are collectively known as intonation.Intonatio
22、n plays a very important role in the conveyance of meaning in almost every language, especially in a language like English. -four basic types of intonation, namely, the falling tone, the rising tone, the fall-rise tone, the rise-fall tone.The falling tone-what is said is a straight forward, matter-o
23、f-fact statement.The rising tone-make a question of what is said.The fall-rise tone-indicate that there is an implied message in what is said.Chapter 3: MorphologyPart One: Morphology1. Open class and closed classopen class: A group of words, which contains an unlimited number of items, and new word
24、s can 7be added to it.-content words. E.g. beatnik: a member of the Beat generation, or a person who rejects or avoids conventional behaviour.closed class: A relatively few words, including conjunctions, prepositions and pronouns, and new words are not usually added to them.-function words.2. Intern
25、al structure if words and rules for word formationmorphology: A branch of linguistics that studies the internal structure of words and rules for word formation.Part Two: Morphemes-the minimal units of meaningmorpheme: The smallest unit of meaning of a language. It can not be divided without altering
26、 or destroying its meaning.bound morpheme: Morpheme that can not be used alone, and it must be combined wit others. E.g. ment.free morpheme: a morpheme that can stand alone as a word.affix: a letter or a group of letter, which is added to a word, and which changes the meaning or function of the word
27、, including prefix, infix and suffix.suffix: The affix, which is added to the end of a word, and which usually changes the part of speech of a word.prefix: The affix, which is added to the beginning of a word, and which usually changes the meaning of a word to its opposite.Part three: Derivational a
28、nd inflectional morphemesderivational morpheme: Bound morpheme, which can be added to a stem to form a new word.inflectional morpheme: A kind of morpheme, which are used to make grammatical categories, such as number, tense and case. E.g. ed and ing endings are inflectional morphemes.inflection: the
29、 morphological process which adjusts words by grammatical modification, e.g. in The rains came, rain is inflected for plurality and came for past tense.Part Four: Morphological rules of word formationmorphological rules: The ways words are formed. These rules determine how morphemes combine to form
30、words.Part Five Compoundscompound words: A combination of two or more words, which functions as a single wordthe noteworthy:1 When two words are in the same grammatical category, the compound will be in this category:E.g. post box, landlady (n+n=n), blue-black, icy-cold (adj.+adj.=adj.)2 In many cas
31、es, the two words fall into different categories, then the class of second or final word will be the grammatical category if the compound.E.g. under take (v), inaction (n), uplift (v)3 It is often the case that compounds have different stress patterns from the noncompounded word sequence.E.g. redcoa
32、t, greenhouse are compounds, but red coat and green house are not.4 The meaning of a compound is not always the sum of the meanings of its parts.E.g. bigwig, highbrow, jack-in-a-box, turncoatConclusion: Morphological rules reveal the relations between words and provide the means for forming new word
33、s. It is these rules that enable us to coin new words. Compounding is a very common and frequent process for enlarging the vocabulary of the English language.8Chapter 4: SyntaxPart One: What is Syntax?syntax: A branch of linguistics that studies how words are combined to form sentences and the rules
34、 that govern the formation of sentences.Part Two: Categories1. Word-level categoriescategory: It refers to a group of linguistic items which fulfill the same or similar functions in a particular language such as a sentence, a noun phrase or a verb.syntactic categories: Words can be grouped together
35、into a relatively small number of classes, called syntactic categories.Major lexical categories: (as heads) N, V, A, PWord-level categoriesMinor lexical categories: det. Deg. Qua. Aux. con.major lexical category: one type of word level categories, which often assumed to be the heads around which phr
36、ases are built, including N, V, Adj, and Prep.minor lexical category: one type of word level categories, which helps or modifies major lexical category.Three criteria to determine a words category?1 Meaning:1 Word categories often bear some relationship with its meaning:Nouns typically denote entiti
37、es such as human beings and objects.Verbs, characteristically designate action, sensation and states.2 The meaning associated with nouns and verbs can be elaborated in various ways:The property or attribute of the entities denoted by nouns can be elaborated by adjectives.The properties and attribute
38、s of the actions, sensations and states designated by verbs can typically be denoted by adverbs.3 It is misleading to assume that a words category can be told straightforward from its meaning. Nouns such as dilemma and friendship do not concretely reveal their entities. Some words such as love and h
39、ate which indicate actions tend to be verbs but they can also be used as nouns. Words with the same or similar meanings sometimes belong to different word categories, such as be aware of and know about.2 Inflection:1 Words of different categories take different inflections. Words of different catego
40、ries take different inflection. Nouns such as boy and desk take the plural affix s. Verbs such as work and help take ed and ing. Adjectives such as quiet and clever take er and est.2 Although inflection is very helpful in determining a words category, it does not always suffice. Nouns like moisture,
41、 fog, do not take plural form s. Adjectives like frequent and intelligent do not take er or est.93 Distribution:Distribution is what type of elements can co-occur with a certain word. Nouns can typically appear with a determiner like the girl and a card. Verbs with an auxiliary such as should stay a
42、nd will go. Adjectives with a degree word such as very cool and too bright.Conclusion: Thus, a words distributional facts together with information about its meaning and inflectional capabilities help identify its syntactic category.2. Phrase categories and their structuresphrase: syntactic units th
43、at are built around a certain word category are called phrase, the category of which is determined by the word category around which the phrase is built.phrase category: the phrase that is formed by combining with words of different categories. In English syntactic analysis, four phrasal categories
44、are commonly recognized and discussed, namely, NP, VP, PP, AP.Whether formed of one or more than one word, phrases consist of two levels, phrase level and word level.NP VP AP PP (Det) N (PP). AP- (Deg) A (PP).VP - (Qual) v (NP). PP- (Deg) P (NP).1. XP RuleIn NP, AP, VP, PP phrases, the specifier is
45、attached at the top level to the left of head while complement is attached to the right. These similarities can be summarized with the help of the template , in which X stands for the head N, V,A,P.: The XP rule: XP- (specifier) X (complement)XP rule: In all phrases, the specifier is attached at the
46、 top level to the left of the head while the complement is attached to the right. These similarities can be summarized as an XP rule, in which X stands for the head N,V,A or P.2. X TheoryX theory: A theoretical concept in transformational grammar which restricts the form of context-free phrases stru
47、cture rules.The intermediate level formed by the head and the complement between word level and phrase level is represented by the symbol X. Thus the new three-level structures can be written as follows:a. XP- (specifier) X b. X- X (complement)3. Coordination Rulecoordination: Some structures are fo
48、rmed by joining two or more elements of the same type with the help of a conjunction such as and or or. Such phenomenon is known as coordination. Such 10structures are called coordination structures.Four important properties:1 There is no limit on the number of coordinated categories that can appear prior to the conjunction.2 A category at any level (a head or an entire XP) can be coordinated.3 Coordinated categories must be of the same type4 The category type of the coordinate phrase is identical to the category type of the elements being conjoined.Coordination Rule: X-
