1、Chapter 9Intelligence and Psychological Testing智力和心理测验,心理学(家)的特点?,EmpiricismTheoretical diversitySocio_historical context Multifactorial causation,Cultural heritageHeredity and environment Subjectivity and experience,本章的主要内容,智力测验测验的一般概念智力测验的进化智力测验的基本问题极端智力智力迟缓智力超常智力发展遗传的作用环境的作用文化的作用智力测量与研究的新方向,问题,智力
2、测验有什么用?如何判断一个智力测验?智力迟缓是否先天决定?天才是“白痴”？IQ能决定什么？。,Types of TestMental ability(心理能力)Personality（人格）,Key Concepts in Psychological Testing,Mental ability testsIntelligence tests (智力测验)一般心理能力:信息加工的速度/深度与准确性;Aptitude tests（才能测验）某一类心理潜能（specific）: verbal reasoning, numerical reasoning, abstract reasoning, p
3、erceptual speed and accuracy, mechanical, spelling, language usageAchievement tests（成就测验）已学习过的知识的掌握程度,Key Concepts in Psychological Testing,Personality testsPersonality traits (人格特质)Personality scale (人格量表) instead of test,Key Concepts in Psychological Testing,Psychological test is a standardized（标准
4、化） measure of a sample of a persons behavior.Uniform administration； Uniform scoring；Norm (常模）_M,SDStandardization group（标准化群体）,Key Concepts in Psychological Testing,Reliability（信度）Correlation coefficient（相关系数）Test-Retest reliability (再测信度)Practice effectAlternative or parallel forms reliability (复本
5、信度)（A、B卷）Split-half reliability (分半信度)/内在一致性信度（internal consistency reliability）Above 0.70,Key Concepts in Psychological Testing,Figure 9.3Correlation and reliability. As explained in Chapter 2, a positive correlation means that two variables covary in the same direction; a negative correlation mean
6、s that two variables covary in the opposite direction. The closer the correlation coefficient gets to either 1.00 or +1.00, the stronger the relationship. At a minimum, reliability estimates for psychological tests must be moderately high positive correlations. Most reliability coefficients fall bet
7、ween 70 and .95.,Figure 9.2Test-retest reliability（重测信度）.Subjects scores on the first administration of an assertiveness test are represented on the left, and their scores on a second administration of the same test a few weeks later are shown on the right. If subjects obtain similar scores on both
8、administrations, as in the left graph, the test measures assertiveness consistently and has high test-retest reliability. If they get very different scores on the second administration, as in the right graph, the test has low reliability.,Validity（效度）The ability of a test to measure what it is desig
9、ned to measureContent validity（内容效度） Achievement test/educational testCriterion-related validity（效标关联效度） 预测能力（aptitude test）Construct validity（结构效度）Abstract personal qualities, such as creativity, intelligence, extraversionHypothetical construct (假设的结构),Key Concepts in Psychological Testing,Figure 9
10、.4Criterion-related validity（效标关联效度）. To evaluate the criterion-related validity of a pilot aptitude test, a psychologist would correlate subjects test scores with a criterion measure of their aptitude, such as ratings of their performance in a pilot training program. The validity of the test is sup
11、ported if a substantial correlation is found between the two measures. If little or no relationship exists between the two sets of scores, the data do not provide support for the validity of the test.,Figure 9.5Construct validity（结构效度）.Psychologists evaluate a scales construct validity by studying h
12、ow scores on the scale correlate with a variety of variables. For example, some of the evidence on the construct validity of the Expression Scale from the Psychological Screening Inventory is summarized here. This scale is supposed to measure the personality trait of extraversion. As you can see on
13、the left side of this network of correlations, the scale correlates negatively with measures of social introversion, social discomfort, and neuroticism, just as one would expect if the scale is really tapping extraversion. On the right, you can see that the scale is correlated positively with measur
14、es of sociability and self-acceptance and another index of extraversion, as one would anticipate. At the bottom, you can see that the scale does not correlate with several traits that should be unrelated to extraversion. Thus, the network of correlations depicted here supports the idea that the Expr
15、ession Scale measures extraversion.,信度 VS 效度,如果有人用你的成人身高来评价智力,你感觉如何,这一测量是可信的,但它有效吗?,Sir Francis Galton (1869) 高尔顿Family tree studiesSensory testReaction time, sensitivity to high-pitched sounds, color perception, etc.Correlated with school or professional performance; Correlation（相关）, percentile tes
16、t score（比例分）.,.,智力测量的历史,高尔顿有关智力测量的主要思想智力可定量个体差异呈钟型曲线可由客观测验测得两套测验成绩之间的相 关程度可通过统计分析确定智力由遗传决定；,Alfred Binet (比纳) and Theodore Simon (1905) 西蒙测验内容:判断和推理等抽象思维(非机械记忆力); Mental ageHow to collect items?60% pass in the group.,比奈-西蒙测验的特点测验分数是当前操作的评估,并非对天生智力的评估;测验是为了更好地分班和教育,并非为了污蔑他们;强调训练可以影响智力发展;依据经验编制测验-看是否有
17、效?-并非依据某一智力理论;,Lewis Terman (特曼，1916, 37, 60, 73, 86)Stanford-Binet Intelligence Scale测验内容：推理能力；Intelligence Quotient (William Stern,1914)WIQ)IQ=MA/CA x 100测验修订的理由用于不同的年龄及人群更新不适应社会发展的条目更新常模,David Wechsler (韦克斯勒，1939, 49, 55, 67, 91 )Wechsler Adult Intelligence ScaleDeviation IQ (离差智商) IQ=100+15(X-M)
18、/SDM，SD为常模特点，X为原始分。,Figure 9.7The normal distribution.Many characteristics are distributed in a pattern represented by this bell-shaped curve. The horizontal axis shows how far above or below the mean a score is (measured in plus or minus standard deviations-标准差). The vertical axis is used to graph
19、the number of cases obtaining each score. In a normal distribution, the cases are distributed in a fixed pattern. For instance, 68.26% of the cases fall between +1 and 1 standard deviation. Modern IQ scores indicate where a persons measured intelligence falls in the normal distribution. On most IQ t
20、ests, the mean is set at an IQ of 100 and the standard deviation at 15. Thus, an IQ of 130 means that a person scored 2 standard deviations above the mean. Any deviation IQ score can be converted into a percentile score, which indicates the percentage of cases obtaining a lower score. The mental cla
21、ssifications at the bottom of the figure are descriptive labels that roughly correspond to ranges of IQ scores.,Do intelligence tests measure potential or knowledge?Intellectual potential Not affected by your knowledge backgroundApply relatively common knowledgeA blend of potential and knowledge,关于智
22、力测验的主要问题,Predict school performance.50s-.60s with 学业成绩可解释成绩总变异量的.25-.36;.60s-.80s with 学历IQ说明1/4的社会地位变异,1/6的经济收入变异;父母社会经济地位对社会地位变异的解释量为1/3,对经济收入的解释量为1/5.预测力不如父母社会经济地位?,IQ测验可以预测什么？,MeasurementAbstract reasoning and verbal fluency(!)Social competence, practical problem solving, creativity, mechanical
23、ingenuity, artistic talent(?)Work by Robert Sternberg (1981)R. J. Sternberg (IBM Professor of Psychology, Department of Psychology, Yale University),原因分析,Figure 9.8Laypersons conceptions of intelligence.Robert Sternberg and his colleagues (1981) asked participants to list examples of behaviors chara
24、cteristic of intelligence. The examples tended to sort into three groups that represent the three types of intelligence recognized by the average person: verbal intelligence, practical intelligence, and social intelligence.,Job complexity may play a role between mental ability and job performance （S
25、chmidt & Hunter, 2004),high,Job complexity,Western cultures with European rootsRapid information processingDecisive respondingThe notion that ability can be quantifiedNon Western culturesPeople will be good at doing things that are important to them. (the ingredients of intelligence are cultural spe
26、cific) JapanChina, IndiaTheme 3: Psychology evolves in a socio-historical context.,Are IQ tests widely used in other cultures?,Mental Retardation (心理迟钝)Diagnosis based on IQ and adaptive testing （American Association on Mental Retardation-AAMR)2-3%IQ： 2 or more SD below meanAdaptive skill deficits（适
27、应技巧缺陷）Origination before age 184 levels: mild(轻度), moderate（中度）,severe（重度）, profound（深度）Mild most common by far （pp. 355）-85%,2.1 Extremes of Intelligence: Mental Retardation,心理迟缓的诊断:在适应性技能等方面表现出缺陷,Figure 9.9The prevalence and severity of mental retardation.The overall prevalence of mental retardati
28、on is roughly 1 to 3% of the general population. The vast majority (85%) of the retarded population is mildly retarded. Only about 15% of the retarded population falls into the subcategories of moderate, severe, or profound retardation.,Causes:Biological Down syndrome (唐氏综合症)：21th. 染色体三体型；Phenylketo
29、nuria (苯丙酮尿症/肝毒性痴呆症)：amino acid phenylalanine（苯基丙氨酸）-（某种代谢酶的缺陷）-tyrosine(酪氨酸）-（合成各种儿茶酚氨）；Hydrocephaly (水脑)Environmental （Figure 9.10）IQ180)Giftedness and high achievement beyond IQ,2.2 Extremes of Intelligence: Giftedness(天才),Exceptional intelligence,Exceptional commitment(MOTIVATION),Exceptional cr
30、eativity,eminence,Renzulli(1986),creativity,Generation of ideas that areOriginalNovelUsefulCreative achievements result from long time hard work;Depend on divergent thinking;,Correlates of creativity,Highly creative people: more autonomous, introverted, open to new experiences; self-confident, and s
31、elf accepting;IQ of 120Connection between exceptional creativity and mental illness;,Figure 9.27Estimated prevalence of psychological disorders among people who achieved creative eminence.Ludwig (1995) studied biographies of 1004 people who had clearly achieved eminence in one of 18 fields and tried
32、 to determine whether each person suffered from any specific mental disorders in his or her lifetime. The data summarized here show the prevalence rates for depression and for a mental disorder of any kind for four fields where creativity is often the key to achieving eminence. As you can see, the e
33、stimated prevalence of mental illness was extremely elevated among eminent writers, artists, and composers (but not natural scientists) in comparison to the general population, with depression accounting for much of this elevation.,Heredity studies(遗传研究)Family and twin studies (家族和双子研究)Heritability
34、estimates: a heritability ratio is an estimate of the proportion of trait variability in a population that is determined by variations in genetic inheritance. (遗传估计),Intelligence: Heredity or Environment?,LaunchVideo,Figure 9.12Studies of IQ similarity.The graph shows the mean correlations of IQ sco
35、res for people of various types of relationships, as obtained in studies of IQ similarity. Higher correlations indicate greater similarity. The results show that greater genetic similarity is associated with greater similarity in IQ, suggesting that intelligence is partly inherited (compare, for exa
36、mple, the correlations for identical and fraternal twins). However, the results also show that living together is associated with greater IQ similarity, suggesting that intelligence is partly governed by environment (compare, for example, the scores of siblings reared together and reared apart). (Da
37、ta from McGue et al., 1993),Figure 9.13The concept of heritability.A heritability ratio is an estimate of the portion of variation in a trait determined by hereditywith the remainder presumably determined by environmentas these pie charts illustrate. Typical heritability estimates for intelligence r
38、ange between a high of 70% and a low of 50%, although some estimates have fallen outside this range. Bear in mind that heritability ratios are estimates and have certain limitations that are discussed in the text.,What is the exactly meaning of heritability estimates?,智力变异由遗传变异决定的比例；例如，性别的可遗传性估计为99%
39、身高的可遗传估计为90%；快乐的可遗传估计为40-50%；心理特质的可遗传性估计：20-60%,Environment studiesAdoption studies (收养研究)foster SiblingsUnrelated children (compared group),Intelligence: Heredity or Environment?,LaunchVideo,遗传、环境和IQ的关系,此图表明遗传和环境对IQ得分的贡献。父子间的IQ相似（遗传的影响），但是父亲一儿子的IQ都与社会地位相关（环境的影响）,环境对IQ的影响,被抚养的儿童的IQ得分黑人和混血儿由中等阶层的白人家庭
40、抚养，他们的IQ值高于正常。因为孩子们来自于IQ值低于平均值的组中，这一数据显示了环境对IQ的影响,EnvironmentCumulative deprivation hypothesis(累积的剥夺假设）Home-environment and schooling effectsOrphanages,povertyThe Flynn effect (James Flynn): Generational increases in measured IQ;InteractionThe concept of the reaction range（遗传决定的可塑范围）,Intelligence: H
41、eredity or Environment?,LaunchVideo,Figure 9.15Reaction range.The concept of reaction range posits that heredity sets limits on ones intellectual potential (represented by the horizontal bars), while the quality of ones environment influences where one scores within this range (represented by the do
42、ts on the bars). People raised in enriched environments should score near the top of their reaction range, whereas people raised in poor-quality environments should score near the bottom of their range. Genetic limits on IQ can be inferred only indirectly, so theorists arent sure whether reaction ra
43、nges are narrow (like Teds) or wide (like Chriss). The concept of reaction range can explain how two people with similar genetic potential can be quite different in intelligence (compare Tom and Jack) and how two people reared in environments of similar quality can score quite differently (compare A
44、lice and Jack).,Heritability as an ExplanationAurthur Jensen (1969)Heritality estimates 80%Herrnstein and Murray (1994) The Bell CurveRacial differences in average intelligence;J.Phillipe Rushton ,Cultural Differences in IQ,Figure 9.16Genetics and between-group differences on a trait.Kamins analogy
45、(see text) shows how between-group differences on a trait (the height of corn plants) could be due to environment, even if the trait is largely inherited. The same reasoning presumably applies to ethnic group differences in the trait of human intelligence.,Environment as an Explanation:Leon Kamins c
46、ornfield analogy,Cultural bias on IQ test: Featured study (Steele & Aronson,1995),X: stereotype vulnerabilityTo test problem-solving strategies;To test general verbal ability;Y: GRE verbal,.,4.4 文化与IQ测验的有效性,刻板印象威胁,Exploring Biological indexes and correlates of IntelligenceAttempt to focus on culture
47、 free measures of intelligenceReaction time (RT) as measure of mental speed (Arthur Jensen, Hans Eysenck )Modest correlation (0.2-0.3) with IQ test;Inspection time: time to make a perceptual discrimination according to a criterion(r=0.3-0.4) with IQ,New Directions in the Study of Intelligence,Exposu
48、re duration,Probability of correct response,.85,14ms,Task: whether the longer line is on the left or right?,Biological indexes of intelligence,Brain size by head size, r=.15 with IQBrain size (by MRI), r=.35 with IQIQ and longevity1932 L-IQ组（85以下）；H-IQ组（115以上）1997，L-IQ组存活率数H-存活率聪明人更长筹?原因:遗传?生活条件?健康习惯?,
