1、1第四讲 英语句子的语法标记我们已经复习了英语句子的基本句型、结构类型和功能类型。这一讲我们将关注英语句子的语法标记（grammatical markers） ，即英语句子中出于语法要求必须出现的形式标记。与古英语相比，现代英语是渐趋分析型的语言（An analytic language is “characterized by a relatively frequent use of function words, auxiliary verbs, and changes in word order to express syntactic relations, rather than of
2、 inflected forms.”） ，越来越多依赖语序和虚词（也称结构词或功能词，包括冠词、介词、助动词、连接词等）来标示句法关系和语法意义。例如：语序：John loves Jane. / Jane loves John.冠词：out of question out of the question / take the chair take a chair介词：He is a man above vulgar interests. / It looks as if we are in for a storm.助动词：I lived here three years ago. / I ha
3、ve lived here for more than one year.连接词：Practically all substances expand when heated and contract when cooled.不过现代英语仍然保留着综合语（A synthetic language is “characterized by frequent and systematic use of inflected forms1 to express grammatical relationships.”）的某些特征，如有形态变化、语序相对固定。这一讲我们将以几篇短文为例来考察英语中遗留下来的
4、几种屈折变化标记或称语法标记，它们分别是：复数标记、所有格标记、时/体标记、形容词或副词的级别标记。一、与名词有关的标记（一） “数” （number ）是和名词相关的一个语法范畴。在英语中，名词根据其词汇意义可以分为专有名词（proper nouns）和普通名词（common nouns） 。普通名词还可用两种方法分类：按照其所指对象的类型（type of referent）可分为具体名词（concrete nouns）和抽象名词（abstract nouns） ；按照其语法形式（ grammatical form）可分为可数名词（countable nouns）和不可数名词（uncount
5、able nouns） 。具体名词包括物质名词 2（material nouns）和类属名词（generic nouns） 。类属名词包括个体名词（individual nouns）和集合名词（ collective nouns）两类。可数名词有单数（singular number）和复数（plural number）两种形式。个体名词的复数形式需要通过词尾的屈折变化（inflection ）来实现，而集合名词形式固定，具体表示单数还是复数会有不同的情况，大致分为：形单义可单可复（family, team, class, audience 等） 、形单义复（cattle, people, po
6、lice 等） 、形复义复（goods, clothes, scissors, trousers 等） 、形单义单（baggage/luggage, clothing, furniture, machinery, poetry, scenery, jewelry, equipment） 。（二） “格” （case）是和名词或代词、形容词这样一些有类似屈折变化的词类有关的一个语法范畴。就名词而言，现代英语只有一个格有词尾变化标志，那就是名词的所有格。最常见的形式是“s” ，以-s结尾的复数名词只加“” ；以 -s 结尾的专有名词或普通名词可用上述两种形式，如： Dickens(s) novel
7、s。名词所有格标记在意义上是非常模糊的，需要在语境中才能加以确定。如课本 36 页例：Where is Jacks book? His mother will get angry if he loses it.Jacks book is the best seller this month.（另见课本 39 页课内练习 3）a childrens hospital; a girls college; a cows housethe mountains top; the woods edge; the citys center一般来说，在英语中，无生命名词不能采用所有格标记，不过在表示国家、城市
8、等地方的名词，以及表示时间、距离、度量及金钱等的名词，虽是无生命的，但是也可用以上形式，表示所有或修饰关系。例见 36 页：three hours drive ten days trip todays world1 屈折变化指把词缀（affix）加到词基或词根上以确定或限定词的语法意义的过程或结果。2 物质名词是材料、食品、饮料以及固体、液体和气体的物质或化学元素名称,如: wood(木料), meat(肉), wine(酒), paper(纸), ink(墨水), gas(气体), water(水), oxygen(氧)等。物质名词一般没有复数形式，不加冠词，只有特指时加 the；表示物质名
9、词的数量时，前面需加 piece(片,枝,块), sheet(张), cup(杯), bag(袋), bottle(瓶)等表示计量的名词。2a miles distance an arms lengthtwo pounds worthChinas economy Nanjings weather“of +名词”表示的所有格结构，既可用于有生命的名词，也可用于无生命名词，特别是当某名词有较长定语的时候。当这个所有格结构的名词后面加s 时，就构成了双重所有格（double possessive ）结构，常用作名词的修饰语。（36 页）可表示家、商店或其他有关人士的处所。the barbers th
10、e florists the bakersmy aunts (house) Lincolns (house) St. Pauls (Cathedral) Queens (College)the Smiths（史密斯一家） the Smiths（史密斯一家的住所）43 页练习 4Mike came from a worker family.Mike visited a workers family last Sunday.He is a friend of my sister.He is a friend of my sisters.I have never heard of such an o
11、pinion of Ted.I have never heard of such an opinion of Teds.Larrys treatment of the child was fair.Larrys treatment by his teacher was fair.Our last summers trip to Nanjing is still fresh in my memory.A summer trip to Nanjing is never ideal.请阅读下文，找出其中的名词，就语法标记特征进行简单的分析。 （课本 33 页练习 6）The Man and the
12、Serpent(1) A countrymans son by accident trod upon a serpents tail, which turned and bit him so that he died. (2) The father in a rage got his axe, and pursuing the Serpent, cut off part of its tail. (3) So the serpent in revenge began stinging several of the farmers cattle and caused him severe los
13、s. (4) Well, the farmer thought it best to make it up with the serpent, and brought food and honey to the mouth of its lair, and said to it: (5) “Lets forget and forgive; perhaps you were right to punish my son, and take vengeance on my cattle, but surely I was right in trying to revenge him; now th
14、at we are both satisfied why should not we be friends again?”(6) “No, no,” said the serpent, “take away your gifts; you can never forget the death of your son, nor I the loss of my tail.”(7) Injuries may be forgiven, but not forgotten.名词：the mana/the serpenta countrymanmy son3accident Can unpleasant
15、 event, especially in a vehicle, that happens unexpectedly and causes injury or damage（交通）事故，意外遭遇，不测事件its/my tailpart U of sth=some but not all of a thing 部分We spent part of the time in the museum.Part of the building was destroyed in the fire.Part of me feels sorry for him.我有点同情他。a rage U, Ca feeli
16、ng of violent anger that is difficult to controlHis face was dark with rage.Sue stormed out of the room in a rage.revenge U something that you do in order to make sb suffer because they have made you suffer 报复He swore to take (his) revenge on his political enemies.She is seeking revenge for the murd
17、er of her husband.The bombing was in revenge for the assassination.an act of revengerevenge attacks/killings 报复性的进攻/ 杀戮the farmercattle 集合名词，总是用作复数。=cows and bulls that are kept as farm animals for their milk or meat如：a herd of cattle twenty head3 of cattle=twenty cows dairy/beef cattleloss U, C, us
18、ually sing.the state of no longer having sth or as much of sth; the process that leads to this 丧失，损失，丢失foodhoneymouthlair usually sing.=a place where a wild animal sleeps or hides 兽穴，兽窝vengeance U (formal) the act of punishing or harming sb in return for what they have done to you, your family or fr
19、iendsa desire for vengeance 复仇心to take vengeance on sb 对某人进行报复He swore vengeance on his childs killer.他发誓要找杀害他儿子的凶手报仇。with a vengenance (informal)=to a greater degree than is expected or usual 程度更深地；出乎意料地3 head of sth (pl.) = used to say how many animals of a particular type are on a farm, in a herd
20、, etc.: 200 head of sheep4friendsgiftsinjuries（1）以辅音字母加 y 结尾，变 y 为 i 再加-es。（2）既可作可数名词，也可作不可数名词。 C, Uharm done to a persons or an animals body, for example in an accident（对躯体的）伤害，损伤，如：serious injury/injuries minor injuries to sustain injuries/an injuryto escape injuryTwo players are out of the team b
21、ecause of injury.There were no injuries in the crash (=no people injured).Dont do that. Youll do yourself an injury (=hurt yourself). U damage to a persons feelingsDamages may be awarded for emotional injury.death名词所有格形式（interpret the meaning ）二、与动词有关的标记英语动词能体现时态。现在时态中主语为第三人称单数时，动词加-s，其余则为原形动词，没有任何外
22、显标记；过去时态中无论主语的人称或数，谓语动词都会加-ed 作为过去时间标记（不规则动词会采用其他形式） 。英语动词还能体现体态（详见第九单元） ，有两种体态有语法标记：进行体和完成体。前者主要动词标记为“be 动词的各种时态及人称形式+动词 ing”，后者主要动词标记为“have 的各种时态及人称形式+动词 ed”。 （课本 43 页练习 3）begin beginning cut cutting hit hitting重读闭音节以辅音字母结尾，重读部分在后面的音节。 什么叫闭音节？ 单个元音字母后面有辅字组（r w y 除外）且以辅字组结尾的重读音节。例如：bag egg fish not
23、 cup 英语重读闭音节就是所谓的元音字母不是发它本身的字母音，重读闭音节就是指在一个音节中，以辅音因素结尾的而且是重读音节的音节比如 apple 划音节就因该是 ap/ple 前面那个 ap 是一个音节以辅音因素 p 结尾就是闭音节。 重读闭音节三要素：1. 必须是重读音节； 2. 最后只有一个辅音字母；3.元音字母发短元音。重读闭音节就要双写重读闭音节即两个辅音中间夹一个元音，如:sit - sitting 举两个很经典的例子：forbid - forbidding (重读闭音节，双写)prohibit - prohibiting（重读在第二音节，非重读闭音节，不双写） 。阅读下面短文（课
24、本 42 页） ，试分析其动词标记。The Bat, the Birds, and the Beasts(1) A great conflict was about to come off4 between the birds and the beasts. (2) When the two armies were collected together the bat hesitated which to join. (3) The birds that passed his perch said: “Come with us”; but he said: “I am a beast.” (4
25、) Later on, some beasts who were passing underneath him looked up and said: “Come with us”; but he said: “I am a bird.” (5) Luckily at the last moment peace was made, and no battle took place, so the bat came to the birds and wished to join in the rejoicings5, but they all turned against him and he
26、had to fly away. (6) He then went to the beasts, but soon had to beat a retreat, or else they would have torn him to pieces. (7) “Ah,” said the bat, “I see now, He that is neither one thing nor the other has no friends.”4 come off (informal) to take place; to happen 举行，发生：Did the trip to Rome ever c
27、ome off? 去罗马的事最后成了吗？5 rejoicing U (also pl.) the happy celebration of sth 喜庆；欢庆5三、与形容词和副词有关的标记在英语中，形容词和副词常常会以比较结构出现，有三个比较等级：原级（positive degree） 、比较级（comparative degree） 、最高级（superlative degree） 。后两个等级的表达形式包含屈折变化语法标记，分别是“-er” 、 “-est”。 （课本第 38 页）以形容词为例：quick quicker - quickest（单音节词）narrow narrower na
28、rrowest（双音节词，以元音结尾）pretty prettier prettiest （双音节词，以元音结尾，以 y 结尾，变 y 为 i 再加-er/-est ）happy happier happiestsimple simpler simplest（双音节词，词尾-l 自成音节）big bigger biggest thin thinner thinnest （以短元音加一个辅音字母结尾的词，双写该辅音字母）severe severer severest stable stabler stablest （以 -e 结尾的词加-r，-st）多音节词（multi-syllabic wor
29、ds）及有些单音节词和双音节词则加 more 和 most。如：just more just most just（以两个辅音结尾的单音节）strict - more strict most strictmodest more modest most modest （以两个辅音结尾的双音节）tired more tired most tired（源于分词的形容词）pleased more pleased most pleased第 41 页练习 6：Jack is more happy than pleased.Jane was more angry than surprised at the
30、news of her cats death.morethan与其倒不如说The child was more frightened than hurt.He always seemed old to me, more like a grandfather than a father.阅读下面短文，注意其中形容词或副词的比较等级：Faster than Sound!Once a year a race is held for old cars. A lot of cars entered for this race last year and there was a great deal of
31、 excitement just before it began. One of the most handsome cars was a Rolls-Royce Silver Ghost. The most unusual car was a Benz which had only three wheels. Built in 1885, it was the oldest car taking part. After a great many loud explosions, the race began. Many of the cars broke down on the course
32、 and some drivers spent more time under their cars than in them! A few cars, however, completed the race. The winning car reached a speed of forty miles an hour much faster than any of its rivals. It sped downhill at the end of the race and the driver had a lot of trouble trying to stop it. The race gave everyone a great deal of pleasure. It was very different from modern car races but no less exciting.
