1、199061) They want to explain why we possess certain characteristics and exhibit certain behaviors. 62) Those who support the “nature” side of the conflict believe that our personalities and behavior patterns are largely determined by biological factors. 63) That our environment has little, if anythi
2、ng, to do with our abilities, characteristics and behavior is central to this theory.64） Behaviorists suggest that the child who is raised in an environment where there are many stimuli which develop his or her capacity for appropriate responses will experience greater intellectual development.65) B
3、ehaviorists, in contrast, say that differences in scores are due to the fact that blacks are often deprived of many of the educational and other environmental advantages that whites enjoy.199171) The supply of oil can be shut off unexpectedly at any time, and in any case, the oil wells will all run
4、dry in thirty years or so at the present rate of use.72) New sources of energy must be found, and this will take time, but it is not likely to result in any situation that will ever restore that sense of cheap and plentiful energy we have had in the times past. 73) The food supply will not increase
5、nearly enough to match this, which means that we are heading into a crisis in the matter of producing and marketing food.74) This will be particularly true since energy pinch will make it difficult to continue agriculture in the high-energy American fashion that makes it possible to combine few farm
6、ers with high yields.75) Until such time as mankind has the sense to lower its population to the point where the planet can provide a comfortable support for all, people will have to accept more “unnatural food”.1992 71) There is more agreement on the kinds of behavior referred to by the term than t
7、here is on how to interpret or classify them. 72) To criticize it for such failure is roughly comparable to criticizing a thermometer for not measuring wind velocity.73）Now since the assessment of intelligence is a comparative matter we must be sure that the scale with which we are comparing our sub
8、jects provides a “valid” or “fair” comparison. 74) The first two must be equal for all who are being compared, if any comparison in terms of intelligence is to be made. 75) On the whole such a conclusion can be drawn with a certain degree of confidence, but only if the child can be assumed to have h
9、ad the same attitude towards the test as the others with whom he is being compared, and only if he was not punished by lack of relevant information which they possessed.199371) The method of scientific investigation is nothing but the expression of the necessary mode of working of the human mind; it
10、 is simply the mode by which all phenomena are reasoned about and given precise and exact explanation.72) It is not that the scales in the one case, and the balance in the other, differ in the principles of their construction or manner of working; but that the latter is a much finer apparatus and of
11、 course much more accurate in its measurement than the former.73) You have all heard it repeated that men of science work by means of induction (归纳法) and deduction, that by the help of these operations, they, in a sort of sense, manage to extract from Nature certain natural laws, and that out of the
12、se, by some special skill of their own, they build up their theories. 74）And it is imagined by many that the operations of the common mind can be by no means compared with these processes, and that they have to be acquired by a sort of special training. 75) Probably there is not one here who has not
13、 in the course of the day had occasion to set in motion a complex train of reasoning, of the very same kind, though differing in degree, as that which a scientific man goes through in tracing the causes of natural phenomena.199471）Science moves forward, they say, not so much through the insights of
14、great men of genius as because of more ordinary things like improved techniques and tools.72) “In short,” a leader of the new school contends, “the scientific revolution, as we call it, was largely the improvement and invention and use of a series of instruments that expanded the reach of science in
15、 innumerable directions.”73) Over the years, tools and technology themselves as a source of fundamental innovation have largely been ignored by historians and philosophers of science.74） Galileos greatest glory was that in 1609 he was the first person to turn the newly invented telescope on the heav
16、ens to prove that the planets revolve around the sun rather than around the Earth. 75) Whether the Governments should increase the financing of pure science at the expense of technology or vice versa (反之) often depends on the issue of which is seen as the driving force.199571) The target is wrong, f
17、or in attacking the tests, critics divert attention from the fault that lies with ill-informed or incompetent users. 72) How well the predictions will be validated by later performance depends upon the amount, reliability, and appropriateness of the information used and on the skill and wisdom with
18、which it is interpreted. 73) Whether to use tests, other kinds of information, or both in a particular situation depends, therefore, upon the evidence from experience concerning comparative validity and upon such factors as cost and availability. 74) In general, the tests work most effectively when
19、the qualities to be measured can be most precisely defined and least effectively when what is to be measured or predicted cannot be well defined. 75）For example, they do not compensate for gross social inequality, and thus do not tell how able an underprivileged youngster might have been had he grow
20、n up under more favorable circumstances.199671）Some of these causes are completely reasonable results of social needs. Others are reasonable consequences of particular advances in science being to some extent self-accelerating. 72）This trend began during the Second World War, when several government
21、s came to the conclusion that the specific demands that a government wants to make of its scientific establishment cannot generally be foreseen in detail. 73）This is a new problem probably not yet unavoidable; but it is a frightening trend. (73)This seems mostly effectively done by supporting a cert
22、ain amount of research not related to immediate goals but of possible consequence in the future.74）However, the world is so made that elegant systems are in principle unable to deal with some of the worlds more fascinating and delightful aspects.结果状语从句的翻译75）New forms of thought as well as new subjec
23、ts for thought must arise in the future as they have in the past, giving rise to new standards of elegance.199771）Actually, it isnt, because it assumes that there is an agreed account of human rights, which is something the world does not have.72）Some philosophers argue that rights exist only within
24、 a social contract, as part of an exchange of duties and entitlements. (73)It leads the discussion to extremes at the outset: it invites you to think that animals should be treated either with the consideration humans extend to other humans, or with no consideration at all. 74） Arguing from the view
25、 that humans are different from animals in every relevant respect, extremists of this kind think that animals lie outside the area of moral choice.75）When that happens, it is not a mistake: it is mankinds instinct for moral reasoning in action, an instinct that should be encouraged rather than laugh
26、ed at.199871）But even more important, it was the farthest that scientists had been able to look into the past, for what they were seeing were the patterns and structures that existed 15 billion years ago. 72）The existence of the giant clouds was virtually required for the Big Bang, first put forward
27、 in the 1920s, to maintain its reign as the dominant explanation of the cosmos. 73）Astrophysicists working with ground-based detectors at the South Pole and balloon-borne instruments are closing in on such structures, and may report their findings soon.74）If the small hot spots look as expected, tha
28、t will be a triumph for yet another scientific idea, a refinement of the Big Bang called the inflationary universe theory. 75）Odd though it sounds, cosmic inflation is a scientifically plausible consequence of some respected ideas in elementary particle physics, and many astrophysicists have been co
29、nvinced for the better part of a decade that it is true.199971）While there are almost as many definitions of history as there are historians, modern practice most closely conforms to one that sees history as the attempt to recreate and explain the significant events of the past. 72）Interest in histo
30、rical methods has arisen less through external challenge to the validity of history as an intellectual discipline and more from internal quarrels among historians themselves. 73）During this transfer, traditional historical methods were augmented by additional methodologies designed to interpret the
31、new forms of evidence in the historical study. 74）There is no agreement whether methodology refers to the concepts peculiar to historical work in general or to the research techniques appropriate to the various branches of historical inquiry. 75）Also common in the natural sciences, the technicist fa
32、llacy mistakenly identifies the discipline as a whole with certain parts of its technical implementation.75) It applies equally to traditional historians who view history as only the external and internal criticism of sources, and to social science historians who equate their activity with specific
33、techniques.200071）Under modern conditions, this requires varying measures of centralized control and hence the help of specialized scientists such as economists and operational research experts. 72）Furthermore, it is obvious that the strength of a countrys economy is directly bound up with the effic
34、iency of its agriculture and industry, and that this in turn rests upon the efforts of scientists and technologists of all kinds. 73）Owing to the remarkable development in mass-communications, people everywhere are feeling new wants and are being exposed to new customs and ideas, while governments a
35、re often forced to introduce still further innovations for the reasons given above. 74）in the early industrialized countries of Europe the process of industrialization - with all the far-reaching changes in social patterns that followed - was spread over nearly a century, whereas nowadays a developi
36、ng nation may undergo the same process in a decade or so. 75）Additional social stresses may also occur because of the population explosion or problems arising from mass migration movementsthemselves made relatively easy nowadays by modern means of transport. 200171）There will be television chat show
37、s hosted by robots, and cars with pollution monitors that will disable them when they offend. 72）Children will play with dolls equipped with personality chips, computers with in-built personalities will be regarded as workmates rather than tools, relaxation will be in front of smell-television, and
38、digital age will have arrived.73）Pearson has pieced together the work of hundreds of researchers around the world to produce a unique millennium technology calendar that gives the latest dates when we can expect hundreds of key breakthroughs and discoveries to take place. 74）Pearson also predicts a
39、breakthrough in computer-human links. (74)But that, Pearson points out, is only the start of man-machine integration: “It will be the beginning of the long process of integration that will ultimately lead to a fully electronic human before the end of the next century.”75）And home appliances will als
40、o become so smart that controlling and operating them will result in the breakout of a new psychological disorder kitchen rage.200261）One difficulty is that almost all of what is called behavioral science continues to trace behavior to states of mind, feelings, traits of character, human nature, and
41、 so on. 62）The behavioral sciences have been slow to change partly because the explanatory items often seem to be directly observed and partly because other kinds of explanations have been hard to find. 63）The role of natural selection in evolution was formulated only a little more than a hundred ye
42、ars ago, and the selective role of the environment in shaping and maintaining the behavior of the individual is only beginning to be recognized and studied. 64）Freedom and dignity illustrate the difficulty. (64)They are the possessions of the autonomous (self-governing) man of traditional theory, an
43、d they are essential to practices in which a person is held responsible for his conduct and given credit for his achievements. 65）Until these issues are resolved, a technology of behavior will continue to be rejected, and with it possibly the only way to solve our problems.200361）Furthermore, humans
44、 have the ability to modify the environment in which they live, thus subjecting all other life forms to their own peculiar ideas and fancies. 62） Social science is that branch of intellectual enquiry which seeks to study humans and their endeavors in the same reasoned, orderly, systematic, and dispa
45、ssioned manner that natural scientists use for the study of natural phenomena.63）The emphasis on data gathered first-hand, combined with a cross-cultural perspective brought to the analysis of cultures past and present, makes this study a unique and distinctly important social science.64）Tylor defin
46、ed culture as “ that complex whole which includes belief, art, morals, law, custom, and any other capabilities and habits acquired by man as a member of society.” 65）Thus, the anthropological concept of “culture,” like the concept of “set” in mathematics, is an abstract concept which makes possible
47、immense amounts of concrete research and understanding.200461）The Greeks assumed that the structure of language had some connection with the process of thought, which took root in Europe long before people realized how diverse languages could be.62）We are obliged to them because some of these langua
48、ges have since vanished, as the peoples who spoke them died out or became assimilated and lost their native languages. 63）The newly described languages were often so strikingly different from the well studied languages of Europe and Southeast Asia that some scholars even accused Boas and Sapir of fa
49、bricating their data. 64）Being interested in the relationship of language and thought, Whorf developed the idea that the structure of language determines the structure of habitual thought in a society. 65）Whorf came to believe in a sort of linguistic determinism which, in its strongest form, states that language imprisons the mind, and that the grammatical patterns in a language can produce far-reaching consequences for the culture of a society. 200546）Television is one of the means by which t
