1、毕业论文开题报告英语从文化角度浅析中西习语的翻译ONTHEVIEWOFCULTUREINTRANSLATIONOFIDIOM一、选题的背景、意义历史背景中西文化都有着悠久的传统，在漫长的历史过程中都曾创造过辉煌。一般而言，西方文化至少包含着三种传统，一种是希腊的，一种是罗马的，还有一种是基督教的。英汉习语中，有一些习语的来源有历史的习语的来源有历史的原因，也有的是出自寓言，神话传说，他们的结构简洁，但意义很深远。因此有很高的研究价值。源自希腊神话的ACHILLESHEEL让人想到了“唯一致命的弱点”；CATSPAW直译为猫爪子，源于伊索寓言，用来比喻“被人当作工具使用”或“受人愚弄的人”；BE
2、TWEENSCYLLAANDCARBIDES译为“进退维谷”，出自荷马史诗；PANDORASBOX直译为潘多拉的盒子，意思是“无穷的灾难”。中国文化也具有许多不同的源流传统。中国文化自秦汉以来，基本上是循着一条所谓“以夏变夷”的路线发展下来的，各种异质文化在中国文化的主体儒家文化面前不是被同化，就是被排拒，从而使儒家文化始终能够保持一种唯我独尊的纯粹性。在中国文化史上，“以夏变夷”始终就是主导，当然也曾经有过以夷乱夏的情况。汉语中的习语和成语主要是来源于中国经传典籍、寓言故事和神话传说。例如守株待兔、叶公好龙、愚公移山、刻舟求剑等是源于寓言故事；夸父追日、嫦娥奔月、画龙点睛、精卫填海等是出自神
3、话传说。这些习语成语充分体现了汉民族独特的古代文化，很难在英语中找到对等的习语，表现了与英语民族文化的巨大差异。选题意义由于习语在语言中的重要地位，习语的翻译早已引起了翻译界的重视。从文化角度对比研究中英习语，有助于掌握习语的意义和运用。习语的正确理解是翻译的第一步，也是至关重要的一步。一个翻译者要进行有效的翻译，不仅要熟悉两种语言系统，而且要了解两国之间的文化差异。所以必须注意既定存在的文化差异，并在翻译中运用不同的翻译方法，以有效传达源语色彩。在当代美国翻译理论一书中，郭建中教授提到近二十年来翻译研究的两个明显的趋向一是交际理论在翻译理论上的体现，二是对文化转换的重视深刻动摇了重视语言转换
4、的传统。换言之，因为交际与文化都具有以人为本人的特质，人文关怀在翻译界已经赢得高度的重视，翻译理论界正在加强宏观把握，拓展翻译视野，加强翻译工作的文化融合功能。二、相关研究的最新成果及动态1对于文化这个及其宽泛的概念,很多学者试图给出一个较为准确的定义。现代文化学之父,美国著名人类学家克鲁克洪定义文化为“历史上所创造的生存式样的系统，即包括显型式样，又包括隐型式样，它具有为整个群体共享的倾向，或是一定时期中为群体的特定部分所共享。”罗伯特拉多和语言学家爱德华萨丕儿也都指出文化行为的模式化特性。英国学者泰勒做出了另外一种经典的定义“所谓文化或文明，即知识、信仰、艺术、道德、法律、习俗以及其它作为
5、社会成员的人们能够获得的包括一切能力和习惯在内的复合型整体。”1813年,德国神学家、哲学家及翻译理论家施莱尔马赫SCHLEIERMACHER在谈到翻译方法时指出“THEREAREONLYTWOEITHERTHETRANSLATORLEAVESTHEAUTHORINPEACE,ASMUCHASPOSSIBLE,ANDMOVESTHEREADERTOWARDSHIMORHELEAVESTHEREADERINPEACE,ASMUCHASPOSSIBLE,ANDMOVESTHEAUTHORTOWARDSHIM”2英国著名语言学家LYONS认为语言系统受两种结构的制约,一种是“地层结构”STRUCTU
6、RE,即人类共同的生理特征和世界的原有结构,这种结构使语言趋向一致另一种结构是“超结构”或“上层结构”SUPERSTRUCTURE,即各个民族不同的文化结构,它导致各民族的语言在表现形式上呈现各种各样的差异。3在某种程度上,翻译作品不仅仅是源语文本的再现,而且与源语文本相比较是一种再创造。法国文学家、社会学家罗伯特埃斯卡皮认为“翻译就是一种创造性叛逆”埃斯卡皮,1987,P137。创造性叛逆是一个与文化差异处理直接相关的术语。正是由于它的存在和使用,出现了许多超过原作的优秀的翻译作品。4近二十多年来,翻译研究已逐渐转向文化间的比较。自1990年翻译文化学派的代表人物巴斯奈特BASSINET和勒
7、弗维尔LEFEBVRE正式提出了“翻译的文化学转向”这一口号之后,译界开始对翻译中的文化因素给予越来越多的关注,翻译已不再被视为单纯的语言符号的转换,而被看成是一种跨文化的交际行为,一个文化移植过程。在近二十年里，文化研究、文学研究、人类学、信息科学、认知科学、心理学和广义上的语言学等均对翻译学科的发展起了较大的推进作用5美国翻译理论家韦努蒂VENETIA于1995年在THETRANSLATORSINVISIBILITYAHISTORYOFTRANSLATION一书中对施莱尔马赫所提出的两种翻译方法进行了进一步概括,将第一种方法称为“异化”,第二种方法称为“归化”DOMESTICATION。“
8、归化和异化可看成直译和意译概念的延伸,但并不完全等同于直译与意译。如果说直译和意译是语言层次的讨论,那么归化和异化则是将语言层次的讨论延续升格至文化、诗学和政治层面。也就是说,直译和意译之争的靶心是意义和形式的得失问题,而归化和异化之争的靶心则是处在意义和形式得失漩涡中的文化身份、文学性乃至话语权利的得失问题。”王东风,200224256孙致礼在翻译的异化与归化中提到“翻译的根本任务是准确而完整地传达原作的思想和风味。在翻译中，译者不仅要考虑语言的差异，还要密切注视文化的差异，力求最大限度地保存原文所蕴涵的异域文化特色。如果不是万不得已，特别不宜归化，而要尽可能真实地传达出来。”“归化主要表现
9、在纯语言层面，在文化层面上则应力求最大限度的异化。”7著名学者辜正坤先生说得好“在翻译理论领域，翻译标准问题无疑是最具历史意义的论题。可以说翻译者对翻译标准的讨论，几乎从一有翻译现象的时候就已经开始。因此，这个古老的论题吸引了如此众多的理论家的注意，是不足为奇。”三、课题的研究内容及拟采取的研究方法、技术路线及研究难点，预期达到的目标1研究方法本文通过收集大量的相关实例，然后对所收集的有关中西方习语翻译的差异的例子进行分析，研究及对比，从而找出引发这些差异的原因；同时对实例进行了论证分析，得出相关的解决方法。2技术路线一是大量阅读图书馆的与之相关的期刊杂志，并做出记录及分析；二是广泛的搜索与课
10、题相关的文化信息，并对其进行编辑整理，以供写作本文参考之用；三是充分利用学校图书馆的已购数据库，从数据库中搜索到大量相关论文，在仔细阅读的基础上，做出了深刻细致的分析，从中得到启迪，形成了本文的构思、框架的来源。3研究难点习语是文化的产物。他们蕴含了太丰富的文化知识。寻找中西文化差异的实例需要翻阅大量文献资料，并将这些实例归类，比较耗时。4预期目标通过这次文学研究，分析体现在习语中的英汉文化差异,让读者能更近距离地体会到中西文化的差异，减少中西交流中的翻译失误并取得读者的认可。四、论文详细工作进度和安排2010年9月20日10月24日确定论文题目2010年10月24日2010年12月20日指导
11、老师下达任务书，学生提交开题报告，文献综述，2011年1月底前提交论文初稿2011年3月底前初稿、二稿的修改2011年4月底前三稿、四稿的修改2011年5月10日前定稿，提交按要求装订的论文终稿一式四份五、主要参考文献1LEFEBVREANDRETRANSLATINGLITERATURETHEGERMANTRADITIONFROMLUTHERTOROSENZWEIGMVANGORCUMASSENCULTURALCONNOTATIONCULTURALDIFFERENCESTRANSLATIONOFIDIOMSTRANSLATIONMETHODS41INTRODUCTIONIDIOMSARETHE
12、ESSENCEOFALANGUAGE,WHICHAREALWAYSPHILOSOPHICALANDETERNALENGLISHIDIOMSANDCHINESEIDIOMSAREGEMSOFTHETWOLANGUAGESASWELLASTHECRYSTALLIZATIONOFTHETWONATIONALCULTURESACCORDINGTOTHELATESTWEBSTERSNEWWORLDCOLLEGEDICTIONARYSAPIR99100“IDIOMISAPHRASE,CONSTRUCTIONOREXPRESSIONTHATISRECOGNIZEDASAUNITINTHEUSAGEOFAGI
13、VENLANGUAGEANDEITHERDIFFERSFROMTHEUSUALSYNTACTICPATTERNSORHASAMEANINGTHATDIFFERSFROMTHELITERALMEANINGOFITSPARTSTAKENTOGETHER”THEDEFINITIONSHOWSTHATIDIOMSAREANUMBEROFWORDSFROMTHEAUTHORSPOINTOFVIEW,IDIOMSARENOTONLYTHEBRIDGETOLANGUAGEBUTALSOTHEMIRRORTOREFLECTTHECULTUREDIFFERENTCOUNTRIESCANSHARETHESAMEL
14、ANGUAGE,HOWEVER,DIFFERENTPEOPLEHAVETHEIROWNDIALECTS,THELOCALSOCIALTRADITION,THENATIVECONCEPTSANDBELIEFSMANYIDIOMSAREJUSTDEVELOPEDFROMSUCHSPECIALCULTURALBACKGROUNDS11SOURCEOFIDIOMSITISWELLKNOWNTHATIDIOMSAREMAINLYFORMEDORCREATEDBYPEOPLEDURINGTHEIRDAILYPRACTICESTOMUCHADEGREE,THEYARETHENATURALOUTCOMEOFT
15、HEWORKINGPEOPLELIFEANDEXPERIENCEFOREXAMPLE,“PLOUGHTHESANDS“ISACTUALLYABOUTAGRICULTURE“TOKNOWTHEROPES“ISFROMNAVIGATION“NECKANDNECK“ISOUTOFHORSERACING“ALIVEANDKICKING“ISRELATEDTOFISHINGINADDITION,CULTUREANDRELIGIONAREALSOTHEMAJORSOURCESOFENGLISHIDIOMSALARGERNUMBEROFENGLISHIDIOMSCOMEFROMTHEBIBLE,FOREXA
16、MPLE“NOTKNOWINGSOMEBODYFROMADAM“MEANSTHEONEWHOISAPERFECTSTRANGERTHEIDIOMLIKE“OUTOFJOINT“ISFROMTHEWRITINGOFSHAKESPEAREFROMTHEGREEKMYTHSTHEREISANIDIOMTHEACHILLESHEEL“WHICHMEANSTHEONLYDEADLYWEAKPOINTTHUSFROMTHEABOVEEXAMPLES,ITISNOTDIFFICULTTOFINDOUTTHATENGLISHIDIOMSARECLOSELYCONNECTEDWITHPEOPLESCOMMONL
17、IFE,LITERATURE,RELIGION,ANCIENTLEGENDSANDFABLESINCHINESE,THESOURCESOFIDIOMSARECOMMONLYRELATEDTOENVIRONMENTSUCHASGEOGRAPHICALPOSITION,CLIMATE,ORECOLOGICALCONDITIONFOREXAMPLE二人同心，黄土变金WHENTWOPEOPLEAREOFTHESAMEMIND,EVENCLAYMAYBECHANGEDINTOGOLD，上无片瓦，下无寸土ASPOORASACHURCHMOUSEINCHINESECULTURE,“EASTWIND“IS“T
18、HEWINDOFSPRING“SPRINGISWARMANDCOLORFUL,ANDITISREGARDEDASTHEBEGINNINGOFALLLIVESTHEREAREMANYIDIOMSINCHINA,WHICHREFERTOSPRING春暖花开IN5WARMSPRING,ALLTHEBLOSSOMSAREINFULLBLOOM,一年之计在于春THEWHOLEYEARSWORKCONSISTSINAGOODSTARTINSPRING12IDIOMS,CULTUREANDTRANSLATIONTHERELATIONSBETWEENLANGUAGEANDCULTUREHAVELONGBEEN
19、CLEARLYOBSERVEDANDTHOROUGHLYUNDERSTOODTHEAMERICANLINGUISTICPROFESSORSAPPIERWHOHAVEKICKEDTHEBUCKETSAID“THEREARETHINGSBEHINDLANGUAGEANDLANGUAGECANNOTDEPARTFROMCULTURE“BAIMAALSOSAID“THEHISTORYOFLANGUAGEANDTHEHISTORYOFCULTUREAREINCOOPERATIONWITHEACHOTHERTHEYNOTONLYOFFERHELPTOEACHOTHER,BUTALSOENLIGHTENEA
20、CHOTHER“LANGUAGEISTHECARRIEROFCULTUREANYLANGUAGECANNOTSOLELYEXISTWITHOUTCULTUREVARYINGLEVELSOFLIFEEXPERIENCESOFPEOPLELEADTOVARIOUSSORTSOFUNDERSTANDINGSANDEVALUATIONSOFTHEPHYSICALREALITYCONFRONTINGTHEMTHOSEIDEASANDTHOUGHTSAREMANIFESTEDINFORMSOFTHEIRCUSTOMS,TRADITIONS,RELIGIOUSBELIEFS,ANDWORKSOFART,WH
21、ICHHELPTOGRADUALLYSHAPEDISTINCTIVECULTURALMODESORCULTURALORIENTATIONSMOSTIMPORTANTOFALL,SUCHCULTURALMESSAGESAREMOSTLIKELYTOBECODIFIEDIN,TRANSMITTEDTHROUGH,ANDFURTHERREINFORCEDBYLANGUAGE,ANDTHATCREATESIDIOMSIDIOMSAREAVERYIMPORTANTPARTOFALANGUAGEANIDIOMISAPHRASEORSENTENCEWHOSEMEANINGISNOTCLEARFROMTHEM
22、EANINGOFITSINDIVIDUALWORDSANDWHICHMUSTBELEARNTASAWHOLEIDIOMSINCLUDESETPHRASES,PROVERBS,TRUNCATEDWITTICISM,COLLOQUIALISMANDSLANGEXPRESSIONSTHEREFORE,ITISRICHINCULTURALCONNOTATIONBOTHENGLISHANDCHINESEHAVEQUITEALONGHISTORY,SOBOTHOFTHEMHAVEALARGENUMBEROFIDIOMSIDIOMSARETHECOREANDESSENCEOFLANGUAGESWITHOUT
23、THEMLANGUAGESMAYSOUNDDULLANDCOLORLESSTHEPERSONINACOMMUNITYNOTONLYHASONESOWNLANGUAGE,BUTALSOHASONESOWNHABIT,ONESOWNIDEOLOGY,ONESOWNVALUESYSTEM,ANDONESBEHAVIORRULESANDSOONTHISIS“CULTURE“IDIOMTRANSLATIONPLAYSANIMPORTANTROLEINTRANSLATIONITISREGARDEDASTHEMOSTIMPORTANTANDTOUGHTHINGINTRANSLATIONPRACTICEBEC
24、AUSEIDIOMSARESAIDTOBETHEMOSTSTRIKINGREFLECTIONOFCULTUREINTHATTHEMEANINGOFWORDSAREARBITRARYITDEPENDSONSOMESOCIALGROUPSWHOHAVETHESAMEVIEWPOINTSONTHEIRVALUESITCANEASILYBEAFFECTEDBYTHEPERMEATIONOFCULTURECONSEQUENTLY,SWARMSOFIDIOMSAREABUNDANTINCULTURALCONNOTATIONFORLACKOFAGOODKNOWLEDGEOFCULTUREOFTHELANGU
25、AGETHEYARELEARNING,ORINFLUENCEDBYCULTURALCUSTOMSANDCULTURALMODESINTHEIROWNNATION,INTHEPROCESSOFREADING,MANYLANGUAGELEARNERSFAILTOHAVEA6COMPLETELYCORRECTUNDERSTANDINGOFWORDSOFTHELANGUAGETHEYHAVELEARNED,WHICHAFFECTTHEEFFECTIVENESSOFTHEIRREADINGFROMTHISTOTHAT,LANGUAGELEARNERSWHOMAKETHEWRONGUSEOFWORDSIN
26、WRITINGANDDAILYCOMMUNICATION,CULTURALMISUNDERSTANDINGANDCULTURALCONFLICTSCANALSOBEINTERPRETEDBYTHISREASON2CULTURALDIFFERENCESINIDIOMSBETWEENCHINESEANDENGLISHIDIOMSCULTUREISANALLENCOMPASSINGCONCERTITHASATLEASTTWOSENSESINANARROWSENSE,CULTUREMEANSINTELLECTUALANDCONCEPTUALCULTUREINABROADSENSE,CULTUREMEA
27、NSHUMANCULTUREINCONTRASTWITHNATURE,SUCHASTHESUMOFANATIONSCUSTOMS,MATERIALANDSPIRITUALPRODUCTS,WAYSOFTHINKINGANDSOONCULTUREISACOMPLEXSYSTEMASAPRODUCTWITHITSORIGINDEEPLYROOTEDINTHEDEVELOPMENTOFMANSCULTURE,LANGUAGECANREFLECTVARIOUSCULTURALPHENOMENATRANSLATIONISANINTERCULTURALACTIVITYTHEREFORE,CULTURALD
28、IFFERENCESSHOULDBETAKENINTOCONSIDERATIONWHENPEOPLETRANSLATETHESAMETHINGHOLDSTRUEFORTRANSLATINGIDIOMSTHECULTURALDIFFERENCESBETWEENCHINESEANDENGLISHIDIOMSCANBECLASSIFIEDINTOSIXTYPES21DIFFERENCESINRELIGIONSRELIGION,THEMAINCOMPONENTOFHUMANCULTURE,REFLECTSDIFFERENTATTITUDESTOWARDSADMIRATIONANDTABOOSOFEAC
29、HNATIONIFPEOPLEDONOTUNDERSTANDRELIGIONANDCULTURALBACKGROUNDDURINGTHETRANSLATION,THETRANSLATIONMAYNOTBEACCURATEANDPROPERTHEREFORE,DIFFERENTRELIGIOUSBELIEFSCAUSEDBYCULTURALDIFFERENCESINTRANSLATIONCANNOTBEIGNOREDCHINESECULTUREISDEEPLYAFFECTEDBYTAOISM,BUDDHISMANDCONFUCIANISM,AMONGWHICHTHEEFFECTOFBUDDHIS
30、MISTHEMOSTINVETERATE,WHILEENGLISHCULTUREISGREATLYINFLUENCEDBYCHRISTIANITYTHEREISNOQUESTIONTHATCHINESEIDIOMSREFLECTTHEINFLUENCEOFBUDDHISM,WHEREASENGLISHIDIOMSARECLOSELYRELATEDTOCHRISTIANITYFORINSTANCE,远看菩萨，近看泥巴AND平时不烧香，临时抱佛脚ARETAKENFROMBUDDHISM,WHILE灵丹妙药AND回光返照AREFROMTAOISM“临时抱佛脚”ISAVERYCOMMONLYUSEDE
31、XPRESSIONSFORSTUDENTSTOUSEESPECIALLYBEFORETHEEXAMSIDIOMSFROMTHEBIBLEANDCHRISTIANITYAREALSOABUNDANT,SUCHASATHORNINTHEFLESH眼中钉,THEFORBIDDENFRUIT禁果,THEAPPLEOFONESEYE掌上明珠,ACOVENANTOFSALT不可背弃的盟约,GIRDUPONESLOINS准备行动,ASPOORASJOB/THECHURCHMOUSE7家徒四壁,PRIDEGOESBEFOREAFALL骄兵必败,ETCTHECHINESEPROVERB“泥菩萨过江,自身难保”I
32、SAPPARENTLYRELATEDTOBUDDHISMWHICHWASONCEVERYPOPULARINCHINACHRISTIANITYISTHEDOMINANTRELIGIONINTHEWEST,MAINLYENGLISHSPEAKINGCOUNTRIESHEREARESOMEMOREEXAMPLESRELEVANTTOCHRISTIANITY1WHOMGODWOULDRUIN,HEFIRSTDEPRIVESOFREASON上帝要毁灭谁，必先夺其理性。2GODSENDSMEATANDTHEDEVILSENDSCOOKS上帝赐给食物，魔鬼派来厨师。3EACHCROSSHATHITSOWNI
33、NSCRIPTION每个十字架都有自己的铭文。4“GODHELPSTHOSEWHOHELPTHEMSELVES”上帝帮助自助的人。5“GOTOHELL”下地狱去。THEREISONESCENEINAMOVIEWHICHISABOUTAJOURNEYONASHIPDURINGTHETRIP,ITSUFFEREDASTORM,ANDAFTERTHEDISASTER,THEPASSENGERSFROMALLOVERTHEWORLDTHANKEDINVARIOUSWAYSTHECHINESEREPEATTHEPHRASE“菩萨保佑”，“阿弥陀佛”WHILETHEWESTERNERSSAY“THANKG
34、ODDESS”22DIFFERENCESONVALUESVALUESGENERALLYCONSIDEREDTOBETHECOREOFTHESPECIFICCULTUREANDWAYOFLIFEVALUESINTWOLANGUAGESWILLCAUSEALOTOFOBSTACLESFORUNDERSTANDINGANDTRANSLATIONTHEREFORE,TRANSLATORSSHOULDPAYATTENTIONTOVALUESINDIFFERENTCULTURESEXAMPLE1EVILISTHEREPRESENTATIVEOFTHEFALSE，THEBADANDTHEUGLYSOIDIO
35、MSRELATEDTOEVILINENGLISHALWAYSHAVENEGATIVEMEANINGSHOWEVER,INCHINESE,THEREISAWORD“GHOST”WHICHDOESMEANEVIL，BUTTHEINFLUENCEOFITISCOMPARATIVELYSMALLTHEINFLUENCEOFGHOSTSORSPIRITSAREMUCHMORELAGERTHANTHATOFTHEEVILGHOSTSARENOTALWAYSBADANDTHEYMAYBEKIND,CUTEANDCLEVERINCHINESEPEOPLESMINDSEXAMPLE2CHINESEPEOPLEB
36、ELIEVEINMODESTY,ANDTHEYSELDOMSHOWOFFINFRONTOFOTHERSINTHEOLDTIMES,CONFUCIUSENLIGHTENEDHISSTUDENTSBYSAYING,“三人行必有吾师“BYASKING,WELEARNNOWADAYS,WESTICKTOTHELOGIONOFCHAIRMANMAO,“谦虚使人进步，骄傲使人落后“BEMODEST,YOUWILLMAKEPROGRESSBEHAUGHTY,YOUWILLDROPBEHINDBUTINWESTERNCULTURE,SELFWORTHANDINDEPENDENCEARESTRESSEDTHEY
37、CONSIDERTHEINDIVIDUALSMOREIMPORTANTTHANTHATOFSOCIETYBELOWARESOMEMOREEXAMPLES1AMERICANYOUDIDAGOODJOBCHINESEATHATSTHERESULTOFJOINTEFFORTS8BTHERESSTILLMUCHROOMFORIMPROVEMENTCNO,NO,IDIDNTDOITQUITEWELL2HOSTDRINKSOMEWINE,PLEASECHINESENO,IDONOTWANTTODRINKWINEBRITISHALLRIGHTTHANKYOUEXAMPLE3MOSTWESTERNERSESP
38、ECIALLYAMERICANBELIEVETHATEACHPERSONHASHISOWNINDIVIDUALIDENTITYANDPERSONALITY,WHICHSHOULDBERECOGNIZEDANDREINFORCEDTHECOREOFINDIVIDUALISMISTHEPURSUITOFPERSONALHAPPINESSANDACHIEVEMENTSITISHIGHLYVALUED,DEEPLYBELIEVEDANDWELLAPPRECIATEDASAFUNDAMENTALSOCIALVIRTUEINTHEIRCHRISTIANITYTRADITIONS,INDIVIDUALSAR
39、EIMPORTANTNOTONLYTOEACHOTHER,BUTALSOTOTHESOCIETYANDGODINDIVIDUALISMHASBEENHANDEDDOWNFROMTHEIRANCESTORSPIONEERSWHOMIGRATEDTOTHENEWWORLDANDINTENDEDTOOBTAINANEWLIFETHEYNEEDTOSURVIVEINTHENEWLANDWHICHMADETHEMBELIEVEININDIVIDUALISMONLYWHENTHEINDIVIDUALCANLIVEUPTOHISPOTENTIALWILLTHESOCIETYMOVEFORWARD,ANDTH
40、ISISTHEBESTWAYTOSERVETHESOCIETYTHEREFORE,TOAMERICANS,INDIVIDUALISMISNOTSELFISHNESSBUTRATHERAVIRTUETHINKINGABOUTTHEPOWEROFTHECONCEPTINSOMEWORDSANDSAYINGSSELFCONTROL,SELFCONFIDENCE,SELFESTEEM,SELFRELIANCE,SELFRESPECT“GODHELPSTHOSEWHOHELPTHEMSELVES”,“HETRAVELSTHEFASTEST,WHOTRAVELSALONEALLTHESEEXPRESSIO
41、NSLIETHEMESSAGEINDIVIDUALACHIEVEMENTANDFREEDOMARETHEVIRTUESTHATAREMOSTGLORIFIEDHOWEVER,TOCHINESEPEOPLE,THEWORD“INDIVIDUALISM”ISRELATEDTOTHEDEROGATORYMEANINGASEGOISM,WHICHREPRESENTSSELFISHNESSINQUALITYANDLOOSENESSINDISCIPLINEINTRADITIONALCHINESEBELIEFS,ESPECIALLYINCONFUCIANISM,COLLECTIVISMISAPPRECIAT
42、EDA“WE”CONSCIOUSNESSPREVAILSINSTEADOFAN“I”ORIENTATIONLOOKATTHEMESSAGEOFCOLLECTIVISMINTHEWORDSOFCONFUCIUS“IFONEWANTSTOESTABLISHHIMSELF,HESHOULDHELPOTHERSTOESTABLISHTHEMSELVESATFIRST”COLLECTIVECULTURESEMPHASIZECOOPERATIONAMONGGROUPMEMBERSANDINDIVIDUALSUCCESSISDUETOTHECOLLECTIVEEFFORTOFTHESTAFFINAUNIT,
43、ANORGANIZATIONORACOMMUNITYTHESACRIFICEOFINDIVIDUALINTERESTFORTHATOFTHECOLLECTIVEISANOBLEQUALITYEULOGIZEDSOMUCHBYCHINESEPEOPLETHATBEINGMODESTANDTHOUGHTFULOFOTHERSAREHIGHLYPRAISEDWITHTHEKNOWLEDGEOFTHIS,ITWILLNOTBEHARDFORAMERICANSTOUNDERSTANDCHINESEMODESTY23DIFFERENCESINTHINKINGPATTERNSCULTURALISAREFLE
44、CTIONOFTRENDOFLANGUAGESANDMINDSTHROUGHCENTURIES,ANDIT9EMBODIESTHECHARACTERISTICOFTHINKINGPATTERNSINDIFFERENTCOUNTRIESTHEREISNODOUBTTHATCHINESEANDENGLISHHAVETHEIROWNWAYSOFTHINKINGENGLISHSPEAKERSPAYMUCHMOREATTENTIONTOLOGICWHETHERORALSPEAKINGORWRITING,ANDTHEYDONOTEXCLUDEDIALECTICALWAYOFTHINKINGINORDERT
45、OENSURETHATTHEIRWRITINGISCOMPACTANDWELLORGANIZEDHOWEVER,CHINESEWAYOFWRITINGISOPPOSITEANDTHEIRWRITINGISNOTWELLKNITENOUGH,SOSOMEFOREIGNERSMAYEASILYMISUNDERSTANDTHEREALMEANINGOFTHEWRITERTHEDIFFERENCEISTHATCHINESEPEOPLEPREFERTOSPEAKIN“INDIRECT”WAYTHESTRUCTURECOULDBESKETCHEDOUTASBECAUSEA,ANDBECAUSEB,，AND
46、BECAUSEC,THEREFOREDTHEREAPPEARSTOBEAWESTERNPREFERENCEFORADIRECTPATTERNINCOMMUNICATIONFOREXAMPLE,INSPEAKINGORWRITING,THECHINESETENDTOFIRSTLYDISPERSETHEIRTHOUGHTS,ANDTHENGATHERTHEM,ANDFINALLYPUTTHEMTOTHESTARTINGPOINTWHILEENGLISHPEOPLEPREFERTHEOPPOSITEWAYTHEYUSUALLYPRESENTTHEIROPTIONSFIRST24DIFFERENCES
47、INSOCIALRELATIONSWECHINESEPAYMUCHATTENTIONTORELATIONSHIPSAMONGPEOPLETHEKINSHIPTERMSARETYPICALEXAMPLESASTHERESULTOFTHELONGHISTORYOFTHEPATRIARCHALSYSTEMCHINESEWORDSINDICATINGRELATIVERELATIONSHIPSARERICHERTHANTHOSEINENGLISHFROMTHEVIEWPOINTOFSOCIOLINGUISTICS,FORMSOFADDRESSINGCANSERVEASANINDICATIONOFTHER
48、ELATIONSHIPOFPOWERANDSOLIDARITYINTHESOCIETYINCALLINGTHEIRSUPERIORSORELDERS,THECHINESEAREACCUSTOMEDTOTHENONRECIPROCALORASYMMETRICALADDRESSINGINOTHERWORDS,THEYUSE“TITLESURNAME”TOADDRESSTHEIRSUPERIORSORELDERSRATHERTHANCALLTHEMSURNAMES,WHILETHESUPERIORORELDERSCALLTHEADDRESSERSTHEIRNAMESTHECHINESETENDTOA
49、BIDEBYTHEPOLITEPRINCIPLEOFDEPRECIATINGONESELFANDRESPECTINGOTHERSTOSHOWAPPROPRIATERESPECTSTOWARDSTHEPERSONSBEINGADDRESSED,OTHERWISE,THEADDRESSERMAYBECONSIDEREDASILLMANNERED,ILLEDUCATEDORRUDEBUTINENGLISHSPEAKINGCOUNTRIES,PEOPLEHAVEATENDENCYTOFOLLOWTHERECIPROCALORSYMMETRICALADDRESSINGALTHOUGHTHEYAREDIFFERENTINAGEANDSTATUS,THEYCANCALLTHEOTHERDIRECTLY,NAMELY,THEIRNAMES,EVENFIRSTNAMESEXCEPTWHENTHEYCALLTHEDOCTORS,NOTAROUSINGOFFENCEBETWEENTHEM,BUTDEMONSTRATINGTHESENSEOFINTIMACYANDTHECONCEPTIONOF“EVERYONEISCREATEDEQUAL”FOEEXAMPLE,“SIXFEETOFEARTHMAKEALLMANEQU
