1、1SLA 期末考试提纲Week 9Chapter 1 Introducing Second Language AcquisitionChapter 2 Foundations of Second Language AcquisitionPART ONE: Definition:1. Second Language Acquisition (SLA): a term that refers both to the study of individuals and groups who are learning a language subsequent to learning their fir
2、st one as young children, and to the process of learning that language.2. Formal L2 learning: instructed learning that takes place in classrooms.3. Informal L2 learning: SLA that takes place in naturalistic contexts.4. First language/native language/mother tongue (L1): A language that is acquired na
3、turally in early childhood, usually because it is the primary language of a childs family. A child who grows up in a multilingual setting may have more than one “first” language.5. Second language (L2): In its general sense, this term refers to any language that is acquired after the first language
4、has been established. In its specific sense, this term typically refers to an additional language which is learned within a context where it is societally dominant and needed for education, employment, and other basic purposes. The more specific sense contrasts with foreign language, library languag
5、e, auxiliary language, and language for specific purposes.6. Target language: The language that is the aim or goal of learning.7. Foreign language: A second language that is not widely used in the learners immediate social context, but rather one that might be used for future travel or other cross-c
6、ultural communication situations, or one that might be studied be studied as a curricular requirement or elective in school with no immediate or necessary practical application.8. Library language: A second language that functions as a tool for further learning, especially when books and journals in
7、 a desired field of study are not commonly published in the learners L1.9. Auxiliary language: A second language that learners need to know for some official functions in their immediate sociopolitical setting. Or that they will need for purposes of wider communication, although their first language
8、 serves most other needs in their lives.10. Linguistic competence: The underlying knowledge that speakers/hearers have of a language. Chomsky distinguishes this from linguistic performance.11. Linguistic performance: The use of language knowledge in actual production.12. Communicative competence: A
9、basic tenet (原则、信条、教条) of sociolinguistics defined as “what a speaker needs to know to communicate appropriately within a particular language community” (Saville-Troike 2003)13. Pragmatic competence: Knowledge that people must have in order to interpret and convey meaning within communicative situat
10、ions.14. Multilingualism: The ability to use more than one language.15. Monolingualism: The ability to use only one language.16. Simultaneous multilingualism: Ability to use more than one language that were acquired during early childhood.17. Sequential multilingualism: Ability to use one or more la
11、nguages that were learned after L1 had already been established.218. Innate capacity: A natural ability, usually referring to childrens natural ability to learn or acquire language.19. Child grammar: Grammar of children at different maturational levels that is systematic in terms of production and c
12、omprehension.20. Initial state: The starting point for language acquisition; it is thought to include the underlying knowledge about language structures and principles that are in learners heads at the very start of L1 or L2 acquisition.21. Intermediate state: It includes the maturational changes wh
13、ich take place in “child grammar”, and the L2 developmental sequence which is known as learner language.22. Final state: The outcome of L1 and L2 leaning, also known as the stable state of adult grammar.23. Positive transfer: Appropriate incorporation of an L1 structure or rule in L2 structure.24. N
14、egative transfer: Inappropriate influence of an L1 structure or rule on L2 use. Also called interference.25. Poverty-of-the-stimulus: The argument that because language input to children is impoverished and they still acquire L1, there must be an innate capacity for L1 acquisition.26. Structuralism:
15、 The dominant linguistic model of the 1950s, which emphasized the description of different levels of production in speech.27. Phonology: The sound systems of different languages and the study of such systems generally.28. Syntax: The linguistic system of grammatical relationships of words within sen
16、tences, such as ordering and agreement.29. Semantics: The linguistic study of meaning.30. Lexicon: The component of language that is concerned with words and their meanings.31. Behaviorism: The most influential cognitive framework applied to language learning in the 1950s. It claims that learning is
17、 the result of habit formation.32. Audiolingual method: An approach to language teaching that emphasizes repetition and habit formation. This approach was widely practiced in much of the world until at least the 1980s.33. Transformational-Generative Grammar: The first linguistic framework with an in
18、ternal focus, which revolutionized linguistic theory and had profound effect on both the study of first and second languages. Chomsky argued effectively that the behaviorist theory of language acquisition is wrong because it cannot explain the creative aspects of linguistic ability. Instead, humans
19、must have some innate capacity for language.34. Principles and Parameters (model): The internally focused linguistic framework that followed Chomskys Transformational-Generative Grammar. It revised specifications of what constitutes innate capacity to include more abstract notions of general princip
20、les and constraints common to human language as part of a Universal Grammar.35. Minimalist program: The internally focused linguistic framework that followed Chomskys Principles and Parameters model. This framework adds distinctions between lexical and functional category development, as well as mor
21、e emphasis on the acquisition of feature specification as a part of lexical knowledge.36. Functionalism: A linguistic framework with an external focus that dates back to the early twentieth century and has its roots in the Prague School (布拉格学派) of Eastern Europe. It emphasizes the information conten
22、t of utterances and considers language primarily as a system of communication. Functionalist approaches have largely dominated European study of SLA and are widely followed elsewhere in the world.37. Neurolinguistics: The study of the location and representation of language in the brain, of interest
23、 to biologists and psychologists since the nineteenth century and one of the first fields to influence cognitive perspectives on SLA when systematic study began in 1960s.338. Critical period: The limited number of years during which normal L1 acquisition is possible.39. Critical Period Hypothesis: T
24、he claim that children have only a limited number of years during which they can acquire their L1 flawlessly; if they suffered brain damage to the language areas, brain plasticity in childhood would allow other areas of the brain to take over the language functions of the damaged areas, but beyond a
25、 certain age, normal language development would not be possible. This concept is commonly extended to SLA as well, in the claim that only children are likely to achieve native or near-native proficiency in L2.40. Information processing (IP): A cognitive framework which assumes that SLA (like learnin
26、g of other complex domains) proceeds from controlled to automatic processing and involves progressive reorganization of knowledge.41. Connectionism: A cognitive framework for explaining learning processes, beginning in the 1980s and becoming increasingly influential. It assumes that SLA results from
27、 increasing strength of associations between stimuli and responses.42. Variation theory: A microsocial framework applied to SLA that explores systematic differences in learner production which depend on contexts of use.43. Accommodation theory: A framework for study of SLA that is based on the notio
28、n that speakers usually unconsciously change their pronunciation and even the grammatical complexity of sentences they use to sound more like whomever they are talking to.44. Sociocultural theory (SCT): An approach established by Vygotsky which claims that interaction not only facilitates language l
29、earning but is a causative force in acquisition. Further, all of learning is seen as essentially a social process which is grounded in sociocultural settings.45. Ethnography(人种论、民族志 ) of communication: A framework for analysis of language and its functions that was established by Hymes(1966). It rel
30、ates language use to broader social and cultural contexts, and applies ethnographic methods of data collection and interpretation to study of language acquisition and use.46. Acculturation(文化适应): Learning the culture of the L2 community and adapting to those values and behavior patterns.47. Accultur
31、ation Model/Theory: Schumanns (1978) theory that identifies group factors such as identity and status which determine social and psychological distance between learner and target language populations. He claims these influence outcomes of SLA.48. Social psychology: A societal approach in research an
32、d theory that allows exploration of issues such as how identity, status, and values influence L2 outcomes and why. It has disciplinary ties to both psychological and social perspectives.PART TWO: Short psycholinguists may make distinctions based on individual aptitude for L2 learning, personality fa
33、ctors, types and strength of motivation, and different learning strategies; sociolinguists may distinguish among learners with regard to social, economic, and political differences and learner experiences in negotiated interaction; and social psychologists may categorize learners according to aspect
34、s of their group identity and attitudes toward target language speakers or toward L2 learning itself.Chapter21. List at least five possible motivations for learning a second language at an older age. P10The motivation may arise from a variety of conditions, including the following: Invasion or conqu
35、est of ones country by speakers of another language; A need or desire to contact speakers of other languages in economic or other specific domains; Immigration to a country where use of a language other than ones L1 is required; Adoption of religious beliefs and practices which involve use of anothe
36、r language; A need or desire to pursue educational experiences where access requires proficiency in another language; A desire for occupational or social advancement which is furthered by knowledge of another language; An interest in knowing more about peoples of other cultures and having access to
37、their technologies or literatures.2. What are the two main factors that influence the language learning? P13（1）The role of natural ability: Humans are born with a natural ability or innate capacity to learn language.（2）The role of social experience: Not all of L1 acquisition can be attributed to inn
38、ate ability, for language-specific learning also plays a crucial role. Even if the universal properties of language are preprogrammed in 5children, they must learn all of those features which distinguish their L1 from all other possible human languages. Children will never acquire such language-spec
39、ific knowledge unless that language is used with them and around them, and they will learn to use only the language(s) used around them, no matter what their linguistic heritage. American-born children of Korean or Greek ancestry will never learn the language of their grandparents if only English su
40、rrounds them, for instance, and they will find their ancestral language just as hard to learn as any other English speakers do if they attempt to learn it as an adult. Appropriate social experience, including L1 input and interaction, is thus a necessary condition for acquisition.3. What is the init
41、ial state of language development for L1 and L2 respectively? P17-18The initial state of L1 learning is composed solely of an innate capacity for language acquisition which may or may not continue to be available for L2, or may be available only in some limited ways. The initial state for L2 learnin
42、g, on the other hand, has resources of L1 competence, world knowledge, and established skills for interaction, which can be both an asset and an impediment.4. How does intermediate states process? P18-19The cross-linguistic influence, or transfer of prior knowledge from L1 to L2, is one of the proce
43、sses that is involved in interlanguage development. Two major types of transfer which occur are: (1) positive transfer, when an L1 structure or rule is used in an L2 utterance and that use is appropriate or “correct” in the L2; and (2) negative transfer (or interference), when an L1 structure or rul
44、e is used in an L2 utterance and that use is inappropriate and considered an “error”.5. What is a necessary condition for language learning (L1 or L2)? P20Language input to the learner is absolutely necessary for either L1 or L2 learning to take place. Children additionally require interaction with
45、other people for L1 learning to occur. It is possible for some individuals to reach a fairly high level of proficiency in L2 even if they have input only from such generally non-reciprocal sources as radio, television, or written text.6. What is a facilitating condition for language learning? P20Whi
46、le L1 learning by children occurs without instruction, and while the rate of L1 development is not significantly influenced by correction of immature forms or by degree of motivation to speak, both rate and ultimate level of development in L2 can be facilitated or inhabited by many social and indivi
47、dual factors, such as (1) feedback, including correction of L2 learners errors; (2) aptitude, including memory capacity and analytic ability; (3) motivation, or need and desire to learn; (4) instruction, or explicit teaching in school settings.7. Give at least 2 reasons that many scientists believe
48、in some innate capacity for language. P21-24The notion that innate linguistic knowledge must underlie language acquisition was prominently espoused by Noam Chomsky. This view has been supported by arguments such as the following:(1) Childrens knowledge of language goes beyond what could be learned f
49、rom the input they receive: Children often hear incomplete or ungrammatical utterances along with grammatical input, and yet they are somehow able to filter the language they hear so that the ungrammatical input is not incorporated into their L1 system. Further, children are commonly recipients of simplified input from adults, which does not include data for all of the complexities which are within their linguistic competence. In addition, children hear only a finite subset of possible grammatical sentences, and yet they are able to abstract general principles and
