1、Chapter one Introduction1.1 什么是语言学1.1.1 定义语言学 Linguistics Linguistics is generally defined as the scientific study of language. 1.1.2The scope of linguistics 语言学分支 必考 P2普通语言学 General Linguistics The study of language as a whole is often called General linguistics. The study of sounds, which are used
2、 in linguistic communication, is called phonetics.（语音学）The study of how sounds are put together and used in communication is called phonology. （音位学）The study of the way in which morphemes are arranged to form words are called morphology. （形态学）The study of how morphemes and words are combined to form
3、 sentences is called syntax（句法学）The study of meaning in language is called semantics. （语义学）The study of meaning in context of use is called pragmatics. （语用学）1.1.3 Some important distinctions in linguistics 成对的概念辨析差异 必考 P3（1 ） Prescriptive and descriptive 规定与描写If a linguistic study describes and anal
4、yzes the language people actually use, it is said to be descriptive, if it aims to lay down rules to tell people what they should say and what they should not say, it is said to be prescriptive.Modern linguistics differs from traditional grammar. Traditional grammar is prescriptive while modern ling
5、uistics is descriptive. The task of linguists is supposed to describe the language people actually use, whether it is “correct” or not.规定性 Prescriptive It aims to lay down rules for ”correct” behavior, to tell people what they should say and what should not say. 描述性 Descriptive A linguistic study de
6、scribes and analyzes the language people actually use. （2 ） Synchronic and diachronic 共时和历时The description of a language at some point in time is a synchronic study; the description of a language as it changes through time is a diachronic study. In modern linguistics, synchronic study is more import
7、ant.历时语言学 Diachronic linguistics The study of language change through time. a diachronic study of language is a historical study, which studies the historical development of language over a period of time. 共时语言学 Synchronical linguistics The study of a given language at a given time. （3 ） Speech and
8、writing 口头语与书面语Speech and writing are the two major media of communication. Modern linguistics regards the spoken form of language as primary, but not the written form. Reasons are: 1. Speech precedes writing; 2. There are still many languages that have only the spoken form; 3. In terms of function,
9、 the spoken language is used for a wider range of purposes than the written, and carries a larger load of communication than the written.（4 ） Langue and parole 语言和言语 必考名解 P4The Swiss linguist F. de Saussure made the distinction between langue and parole early 20th century.Langue refers to the abstra
10、ct linguistic system shared by all the members of a speech community, and parole refers to the realization of langue in actual use. Saussure made the distinction in order to single out one aspect of language for serious study. He believes what linguists should do is to abstract langue from parole, t
11、o discover the regularities governing the actual use of language and make them the subjects of study of linguistics.语言 langue （抽象）The abstract linguistic system shared by all members of a speech community. 言语 parole （具体）The realization of langue in actual use. （5 ） Competence and performance 语言能力和语言
12、运用Proposed by American linguist N. Chomsky in the late 1950s.He defines competence as the ideal users knowledge of the rules of his language, and performance the actual realization of this knowledge in linguistic communication. He believes the task of the linguists is to discover and specify the lan
13、guage rules.语言能力 Competence （抽象）Competence is the ideal users knowledge of the rules of his language. 语言运用 performance （具体）Performance is the actual realization of this knowledge in linguistic communication. 语言运用是所掌握的规则在语言交际中的具体体现。 （6 ） Traditional grammar and modern linguistics 传统语法和现代语法It is gener
14、ally believed that the beginning of modern linguistics was marked by the publication of Fde Saussure s book “Course in General Linguistics” in the early 20th century. Before that is traditional grammar.Differences between traditional grammar and modern linguistics:Modern linguistics is descriptive w
15、hile traditional grammar is prescriptive.Modern linguistics regards the spoken language as primary, not the written.Modern linguistics differs from traditional grammar also in that it does not force languages into a Latin-based framework.(Modern linguistics is descriptive, its investigations are bas
16、ed on authentic and mainly spoken language date.现代语言学是描述性的，其研究以确实可靠的、主要以口语形式的资料为基础。 traditional grammar is prescriptive. it is based on high written language. 传统语法是规定性的，研究高级书面语。 )1.2 什么是语言1.2.1 定义语言 language：Language is a system of arbitrary vocal symbols used for human communication. 语言是人类用来交际的任意性的
17、有声符号体系。 1.2.2 Design features of language 必考 P8It refers to the defining properties of human language that distinguish it from any animal system of communication.语言识别特征是指人类语言区别与其他任何动物的交际体系的限定性特征。 Arbitrariness 任意性 Productivity 多产性 （创造性）Duality 双重性 Displacement 移位性 Cultural transmission 文化传递arbitrari
18、ness There is no logical connection between meanings and sounds. P.S the arbitrary nature of language is a sign of sophistication and it makes it possible for language to have an unlimited source of expressions Productivity Animals are quite limited in the messages they are able to send. Duality Lan
19、guage is a system, which consists of two sets of structures ,or two levels. Displacement Language can be used to refer to contexts removed from the immediate situations of the speaker. Cultural transmission Human capacity for language has a genetic basis, but we have to be taught and learned the det
20、ails of any language system. this showed that language is culturally transmitted. not by instinct. animals are born with the capacity to produce the set of calls peculiar to their species. 1.2.3 Functions of language 语言的功能Descriptive function, expressive function, social functionSix elements of a sp
21、eech event specified by Jakobson:Addresser - Emotive 感情功能Addressee - Conative 意动功能Context - Referential 所指功能Message - Poetic 诗歌功能Contact - Phatic communion 寒暄功能Code - Metalinguistic 无语言功能Chapter Two Phonology2.2 Phonetics（语音学）2.2.1 定义Phonetics: the study of the phonic medium of language: it is conce
22、rned with all the sounds that occur in the worlds languages.是指对语言的语音媒介进行的研究，它关注语言世界中的所有语音2.2.2 Organs of speech3 个区域：the pharyngeal cavity 咽腔-the throat，the oral cavity 口腔-the mouth，nasal cavity 鼻腔-the nose清音 Voiceless When the vocal cords are drawn wide apart ,letting air go through without causing
23、 vibration ,the sounds produced in such a condition are called voiceless sounds. 浊音 Voicing Sounds produced while the vocal cords are vibrating are called voiced sounds. 2.2.3 宽式音标和严式音标宽式音标 Broad transcription The transcription of speech sounds with letter symbols only. 严式音标 Narrow transcription The
24、 transcription of speech sound with letters symbols and the diacritics. 送气 Aspirated不送气 Unaspirated2.2.4Classification of English speech sounds 英语语音的分类Vowel and consonant 元音辅音Vowel The sounds in the production of which no articulators come very close together and the air stream passes through the vo
25、cal tract without obstruction are called vowels. Classification of English consonants a: in terms of the manners of articulation(发音方式): Stops(爆破音): pb td kg 6 Fricatives(摩擦音 ): /f/ /v/ / / /s/ /z/ / / h/ /r/ 8 Affricatives(塞擦音): /t/ /d/ Liquids(清音): /l/ /r/ Nasals(鼻音 ): /m,n,/ Glides(滑音): /w j/ b: i
26、n terms of place of articulation(发音部位) bilabials(双唇音 ): /p b m w/ labiodentals(唇齿音): /f v/ dentals(齿音): / alveolars(齿龈音): /t d n l r s/ 6 palatals(腭音): /j t d / 5 velars(软腭音 ): /k g/ glottal(喉音): /h/ Classification of English vowels a: the position of the tone in mouth: front, central, back, b: the
27、openness of the mouth: closed semi-closed semi-open and open. c: the shape of the lips: rounded and unrounded d: the length of the vowels: tense and lax or long and short2.3Phonplogy 音位学2.3.2Phone, phoneme and allophone音素 Phonea phonetic unit or segment. 音位 Phonemea collection of abstract sound feat
28、ures, a phonological unit. 音位变体 AllophonesDifferent phones which can represent a phoneme in different environments are called the allophones of that phoneme. 2.3.4 explain the sequential rule and the assimilation rule . 序列规则 Sequential rules Rules that govern the combination of sounds in a particula
29、r language. 同化规则 Assimilation rules The assimilation rule assimilates one sound to another by copying a feature of a sequential phoneme, thus making the two phones similar. 省略规则 Deletion ruleIts a phonological rule which tells us when a sound is to be deleted although its orthographically represente
30、d.2.3.5 Suprasegmental features 超音段特征重音 Stress声调 ToneTones are pitch variations, which are caused by the differing rates of vibration of the vocal cords.语调 IntonationChapter Three Morphology 形态学3.2 Open class and closed classOpen class words 实词，词数可增加Closed class words 虚词，词数稳定3.3 Morphemes 词素词素 Morph
31、eme The basic unit in the study of morphology and the smallest meaningful unit of language. 自由词素 Free Morpheme Free morphemes are independent units of meaning and can be used freely all by themselves. 黏着词素 Bound morphemes Bound morphemes are these morphemes that canot be used by themselves, must be combined with other morphemes to form words that can be used independently.
