1、叶俊丽Mail to ,肺病理生理学(Pulmonary Insufficiency),Department of pathophysiology,Contents, Introduction Etiology and pathogenesis Alterations of function and metabolism, Introduction,Normal physiological function of lung,External respiration Defensive function Filter function Metabolic function,Defensive f
2、unction,肺泡表面积80m2,接触空气15000L/天,Defensive function,非特异性:气道异物的清除(颗粒、气体)。,颗粒的清除:受气道解剖、气流速度、颗 粒大小影响。,5m,沉积在上呼吸道1-5m,沉积在小气道0.1-1m,沉积在肺泡0.1m,基本随呼气排出,气体的清除:喷嚏、咳嗽。,特异性防御机制-免疫反应。,肺是重要的免疫系统。,淋巴组织、IgA、IgG、免疫反应细胞等。,Defensive function,Filter function,arterial,(2010) IF= 47.05,Metabolic function,肺组织参与糖、脂肪、蛋白质的代谢。
3、,Surfactant,Metabolic function,Metabolic function,Metabolic function,胺类:儿茶酚胺(CA)、5-HT、组胺等。,脂类:前列腺素、白三烯、PAF、乙酰胆碱等。,Metabolic function,肽类:血管紧张素、缓激肽、血管活性肠肽、P物质等。,Pulmonary dysfunction,In the study ? ? ?,The respiration process in normal body,Respiratory failure,ventilation,exchange,Case study,病史:患者男,45
4、岁。因车祸致全身多发伤入院。手术抢救后次日(伤后23 h),患者呼吸困难加重,胸闷,口唇紫绀。 体检:呼吸35-40次/ min,脉搏138次/ min,血压97.5/45.0 mmHg,并且无尿, 实验室检查:SaO20.70-0.78,pH7.216;PaCO2 35.2mmHg,PaO2 39.0mmHg。拍X光片:右肺上叶不张,左肺下叶纤细阴影,间质水肿,肺不张。,思考:患者的主要病理过程是什么?机制是什么?如何纠正该患者的缺氧问题?,Conception of respiratory failure,外呼吸功能,PaO2,/ PaCO2,病理过程,(呼吸衰竭),FiO2 20%, R
5、FI 300 ( RFI= PaO2 / FiO2 ),PaO2 50mmHg,Diagnosis of respiratory failure,According to PaCO2,Classification of respiratory failure,Contents, Introduction Etiology and pathogenesis Alterations of function and metabolism,外呼吸,Ventilatory disorder,Pathogenesis of Respiratory Failure,Disorder of air excha
6、nge,肺通气功能障碍,肺换气功能障碍,Alveolar ventilation(4L / min ),dead space,Pulmonary ventilation( 6L / min ),Normal respiratory movement,3,5,4,3,2,1,CenterMusclesChest wallAlveoliAirway,3,2,Causes of impaired ventilation,Restrictive hypoventilation,(限制性通气不足),(1) 呼吸肌麻痹,胸廓畸形,(2) 胸廓顺应性下降,胸腔积液,(3)气胸,胸腔积液,(4)肺顺应性下降,
7、肺纤维化,Diffuse Fibrosis(white-tan tissue),Caused by ARDS, hyperventilation and alveolar edema,etc.,normal,Lack of surfactant,(4)肺顺应性下降,Causes of restrictive ventilatory disorder,呼吸肌无力(Paralysis of respiratory muscles),胸廓顺应性降低(Decreased compliance of chest wall),肺顺应性降低(Decreased compliance of lung),胸腔积
8、液和气胸(Hydrothorax or pneumothorax),Causes of impaired ventilation,Restrictive hypoventilation (限制性通气不足),Obstructive hypoventilation (阻塞性通气不足),Factors influencing the airway resistance,80% of the airway resistance comes from central airway (2mm), 20% from peripheral small airway (2mm).,Obstruction of
9、central airway (中央性气道阻塞),Obstruction of peripheral airway (外周性气道阻塞),Causes of obstructive ventilatory disorder,Inspiration,Obstruction of extrathoracic airway,Obstruction of intrathoracic airway,Intra-thoracic pressure,Intra-thoracic pressure,Expiration,Inspiration,Intraairway pressure,Intraairway p
10、ressure,Obstruction of central airway (中央性气道阻塞),Obstruction of peripheral airway (外周性气道阻塞),Causes of obstructive ventilatory disorder,Obstruction of peripheral airway,Intra-thoracic pressure,Intra-thoracic pressure,Expiration,Inspiration,Intraairway pressure,Intraairway pressure,normal,COPD,Equal pr
11、essure point shifts up leading to airway closure caused by forced expiration,Atmosphere pressure,Intrathoracic pressure,Intraairway pressure,Changes of blood gas in alveolar hypoventilation,Alveolar hypoventilation,Changes of blood gas in alveolar hypoventilation,2. PaCO2 is the best index of alveol
12、ar ventilation of total lung,1. The ratio of the increased value of to the decreased value of is equal to the respiratory quotient,Ventilatory disorder (肺通气功能障碍),Causes of Respiratory Failure,Disorder of air exchange (肺换气功能障碍 ),Normal gas exchange,Causes of disorder of air exchange,Impaired Gas Diff
13、usion (弥散障碍),Ventilation- Perfusion Imbalance (通气/血流比例失调),Increased anatomic shunt (解剖分流增加),Impaired Gas Diffusion (弥散障碍),Factors influencing gas diffusion speed,thickness:1-5 mTotal area:about 70-80 m2 at rest 40 m2,Normal structure of diffusion membrane,Diffusion speed ,Etiologies and mechanisms o
14、f impaired diffusion,Surface area of diffusion membrane (肺泡膜面积减少),Thickness of diffusion membrane (肺泡膜厚度增加 ),Shorten of diffusion time (弥散时间缩短 ),pO2(kPa),Artery,Capillary,Vein,13.310.78.005.332.67 0,0 0.25 0.50 0.75,The changes of the diffusion time (1)At rest (2)Physical load increase,Time(S),Chang
15、es of blood gas in diffusion disorder,Diffusion disorder,The dissolubility of CO2 in water and its diffusion index is greater than that of O2. PaCO2 is the best index of alveolar ventilation of total lung.,?,HbO2,H2CO3,100 80 60 40 20 0,20 40 60 80 100 120 140,动脉血氧分压(mmHg),静脉血 动脉血,O2解离曲线,病变部位,非病变部位,
16、Causes of disorder of air exchange,Ventilation- Perfusion Imbalance (通气/血流比例失调),Impaired Gas Diffusion (弥散障碍),Most common and important mechanism of RF caused by pulmonary diseases.,Normal physiological VA/Q mismatch,Ventilation/Perfusion Imbalance,Partial alveolar hypoventilation,Partial alveolar h
17、ypoperfusion,Classification of Ventilation- Perfusion Imbalance,A,C,B,A:V/Q normalB:V/Q (perfusion, no ventilation)C:V/Q ( ventilation, no perfusion ),部分肺泡阻塞性或限制性通气不足,病变部肺泡通气明显减少,血流未相应减少,VA/Q 显著降低(0.8),气少血多,病变部位静脉血未经充分动脉化,类似于动 - 静脉短路,Partial alveolar hypoventilation( functional shunt),Functional shu
18、nt,Physiological shunt:3% of pulmonary perfusion,PathoPhysiological shunt :30-50% of pulmonary perfusion,Local hypoventilation,Functional shunt(venous admixture),airway,Pulmonary vein,Pulmonary artery,capillary,alveoli,肺动脉拴塞、炎症、收缩或DIC,病变部肺泡血流明显减少,通气未相应减少,Partial alveolar hypoperfusion (dead space li
19、ke ventilation),VA/Q 显著升高(0.8),气多血少,病变部位肺泡通气不能充分被利用,肺泡死腔增大,Dead space like ventilation,Physiological:30% of alveolar ventilation,Pathophysiological:60-70%,Local hypoperfusion,dead space like ventilation,normal,changes of blood gas in Ventilation-Perfusion Imbalance,Ventilation-Perfusion Imbalance,Ab
20、normal,Normal,Total lung,气少血多,气多血少,(depend on compensatory degree),changes of blood gas in functional shunt,氧离曲线决定,CO2解离曲线决定,代偿过度, PaCO2降低,代偿不足, PaCO2升高,代偿适度, PaCO2正常,changes of blood gas in functional shunt,HbO2,H2CO3,Abnormal,Normal,Total,气少血多,气多血少,(取决于代偿程度),(hypoventilation),(hyperventilation),ch
21、anges of blood gas in functional shunt,abnormal,normal,total,气少血多,气多血少,changes of blood gas in VDf,病变肺,健侧肺,全肺,气少血多,气多血少,(取决于代偿程度),( hypoventilation ),( hyperventilation ),changes of blood gas in VDf,肺换气功能障碍的基本原因,弥散障碍 (Impaired Gas Diffusion),通气血流比例失调(Ventilation- Perfusion Imbalance),解剖分流增加(Increase
22、d anatomic shunt),解剖分流(anatomic shunt),anatomic shunt,airway,Pulmonary artery,Pulmonary veins,解剖分流增加,功能性分流,功能性分流(VA= 0),解剖分流,No gas exchange,真性分流,真正分流,功能性分流,解剖上不允许气体交换,吸入纯氧无效,部分肺泡气体交换减少,吸入纯氧有效,如何鉴别功能性分流与真正分流,肺泡通气与血流比例失调,气道,肺动脉,肺静脉,肺泡,毛细血管,1. 正常,2. 解剖分流,3. 功能分流,4. 死腔样通气,分流,低氧,通气不足,血流不足,低氧,低氧,返回,Acute
23、 respiratory distress syndrome, ARDS(急性呼吸窘迫综合征),-Acute respiratory failure caused by acute lung injury,1992年欧美ARDS联席会议认为,ARDS不是一个独立的疾病而是一个连续的病理过程。 *早期为急性肺损伤(ALI),重度ALI即为ARDS,ARDSEpidemiology,Incidence:5 71 per 100,000Financial cost:$5,000,000,000 per annumFatality: 40%-60%,ARDSEtiology,ARDS-Etiology
24、,ARDSPathophysiology,肺间质/肺泡水肿进行性缺氧due to intra-pulmonary shunt (V/Q = 0)shunt 25% - 50%气道阻力增加,病因,直接损伤,急性肺泡毛细血管膜损伤,间接激活炎症细胞,急性呼吸衰竭,?,Causes and mechanisms of ARDS,Mechanism of cell injury and repair, 炎症细胞通过炎症介质的损伤作用 缺血缺氧的基因调节反应 应急蛋白的产生与激活 生长因子的作用 细胞骨架与小管结构的损伤与重建,单核巨噬细胞 ARDS发病624,肺巨噬细胞数量速增,且持续时间长。肺巨噬细
25、胞来自骨髓单核细胞,是肺的正常细胞成分。分为型:肺泡巨噬细胞(AM):其数量为肺泡常驻细胞80;肺间质巨噬细胞;树突状细胞(dendritic cell);肺血管内巨噬细胞(pulmonary intravascular macro phage, PIM),Pathophysiology of ARDS,Bello证实,支气管肺泡灌注液,PMNs凋 亡延迟: * 粘细胞-巨噬细胞集落刺激因子(GM-CSF) * 粘细胞集落刺激因子(G-CSF) * TNF-2、IL-1、IL-6 延长PMNs生命周期 维持了白细胞的多种功能。,3. NF-B活性显著增高, 促进蛋白质转录。,4. 在炎性介质作
26、用下,中性粒细胞流变学特性的改变(如变形性降低、体积增加,聚集),肺循环低灌注压、大容量、分枝少,肺血管中性粒细胞含量较其他部位大血管高4080倍。 中性粒细胞通过肺毛细血管时间延长:26s(2120s),红细胞12s。,2.多形核中性粒细胞(PMNs)凋亡延迟或抑制的调控作用,Pathophysiology of ARDS,Drost用细胞通过分析仪研究脓毒血症病人中性粒细胞流变学特性 ,这些细胞通过直径为8um,长为20um微管。* 移动方式:跳跃式快速移动与停顿,变形,在5.3 m毛细血管变形时间延长。硬化(rinidity),变形性降低,体积增大20100%。 (Na+/H+)* 粘附
27、形成双联体。幼稚粒细胞增加。,Normal Cell,Apoptotic cell,Cell undergoing apoptosis,5.血小板: 释放AAM、5-羟色胺(5-HT),血小板激活因子(PAF),表皮生长因子(EGF)、转化生长因子(TGF)等。,Pathophysiology of ARDS,6. 血管内皮细胞: 可选择性地代谢生物活性物质,如5-HT、去甲肾上腺素、缓激肽、血管紧张素等;可释放氧自由基、花生四烯酸、前炎症因子和生长因子;也可表达某些粘附分子。,7. 肺泡上皮细胞 分为型肺泡细胞(pneumocyte type,PC-)和型肺泡细胞(PC-)。它们在ARDS发
28、病中的变化,包括直接受损和PC-表面活性物质(PS)代谢异常两个方面。,Pathophysiology of ARDS,ARDS Acute Exudative Phase,ARDSProliferative Phase,Type II pneumocyteproliferatedifferentiate into Type I cellsreline alveolar wallsFibroblast proliferationinterstitial/alveolar fibrosis,ARDSFibrotic Phase,Characterized by:local fibrosisvas
29、cular obliterationRepair process:resolution vs fibrosis,RDS,呼吸窘迫综合征:肺泡腔内蛋白性液体渗出,并在肺泡管和肺泡表面形成膜状物,肺泡萎陷,NRDS:小支气管内可见吸入的羊水成分(胎便小体和角化物质),NRDS:肺泡内可见吸入的角化物质,RDS,早产儿呼吸窘迫综合征(IIIII度) 肺透亮度明显降低、细颗粒、网状阴影,支气管充气正常,“ 白肺”(IV度),*ARDS发病的三个阶段 局部炎症反应阶段: 有限全身炎症反应阶段:介质入血 SIRS/CARS失衡阶段: 瀑布样释放炎症扩散,失控。 细胞因子,保护自身破坏。,Pathophys
30、iology of ARDS,Causes,Inflammatory response,MODS,Primary inflammation,SIRS,CARS,抗炎因子大量释放,致炎因子大量释放,Balance,Anti-inflammatory response,Secondary mediators,agents(chemical, physical or biological) inflammationPulmonary edema atelectasis bronchospasm vasoconstriction thrombosisDiffusion disorder shunt d
31、ead space like ventialtion hypoxia,Type I RF,ARDSClinical Phases,I. Injury PhaseII. Latent/Lag PhaseIII. ARF PhaseIV. Recuperative/Terminal Phase,ALI的诊断标准: 1.急性起病; 2.氧合指数PaO2/FIO2300mmHg( 40kPa ) 3.正位胸片两肺斑片状阴影; 4.PAWP18mmHg(2.4kPa),或无左房压力增高,ARDS的诊断标准: ALI诊断标准基础+氧合指数200mmHg(26.67kPa),1.血清表面活性蛋白-A (SP
32、-A),ARDS早期预测,ARDS病人支气管肺泡灌洗液(BALF) 中(SP-A)水平降低,而血清水平明显增高。因此,血清SP-A可以作为预测ARDS发生的高危因素。,2. 抗IL-8/IL-8复合物,具有ARDS高危因素的病人中,BALF抗IL-8/IL-8复合物含量越高,发生ARDS的几率越大,死亡率也越高。与PMNs在肺泡的浓度呈正相关。,3. HT156,ALI发病机理中,肺泡上皮屏障的损伤处于中心位置,HT156是人类I型肺泡上皮细胞膜蛋白成分。ALI病人肺水肿液及血浆中含量数倍于正常人,表明HT156可以作为肺泡上皮损伤的生化标记物,有助于预测ALI的发生。,目前正在进行的治疗探索
33、,抗氧化剂: N乙酰半胱氨酸(NAC),谷胱甘肽、VitE、VitC高频通气肾上腺素能受体兴奋剂蛋白酶抑制剂中心粒细胞内皮黏附抑制剂补体抑制剂、弹性蛋白酶抑制剂IL10、布洛酚持续大流量CVVH的作用,Chronic obstructive pulmonary disease (COPD),Chronic bronchitis,Emphysema,Chronic airway obstruction(diameter2mm),COPD 患病率(1990年),India4.383.44China26.2023.70Other Asia 2.891.79Sub-Saharan Africa4.41
34、2.49Latin America and Caribbean3.362.72Middle Eastern Crescent2.692.83World9.347.33*From Murray & Lopez, 1996,男/1000,女/1000,中国城市十大死亡原因 (2003),中国农村十大死亡原因 (2003),WHO和中国呼吸界关注COPD,世界COPD日:11月世界戒烟日:5月31日GOLD:Global Initiative for Chronic Obstructive Lung Disease(2002,2004,2009)中国COPD诊治规范(1997)中国慢性阻塞性肺疾病诊
35、治指南(2002年-2009版),2010 - The Year of the Lung: Measure your lung health Ask your doctor about a simple breathing test called spirometry,Symptoms,When its hard to breathe, its hard to do anythingPeople with COPD:avoid activities that they used to do more easilylimit activity to accommodate shortness o
36、f breath and other symptoms. Some activities include:Take elevator instead of stairs.Park close by instead of walking.Avoid shopping or other similar day-to-day tasks. Stay home rather than go out with friends.,COPD的定义以及病情危重度的分级,不可逆的气流受限的疾病支气管扩张症囊性纤维化肺结核支气管哮喘 除非与COPD重叠的部分外均不属于COPD的范畴,发 病 机 制,COPD的发病
37、机制尚未完全明了。炎症机制:目前普遍认为COPD以气道、肺实质和肺血管的慢性炎症为特征,在肺的不同部位有肺泡巨噬细胞、T淋巴细胞(尤其是CD8)和中性粒细胞增加。 激活的炎症细胞释放多种介质,包括白三烯B4(LTB4)、白介素8(IL8)、肿瘤坏死因子(TNF)和其他介质。这些介质能破坏肺的结构和(或)促进中性粒细胞炎症反应。肺部的蛋白酶和抗蛋白酶失衡机制。氧化与抗氧化失衡机制。,炎症/免疫与COPD,炎症/免疫与COPD,肺部的蛋白酶和抗蛋白酶失衡?,antitrypsin与COPD,ROS与COPD,Chun-zhen Zhao et al. Respiratory Medicine (2
38、010) 104, 1391-1395.,COPD的定义以及病情危重度的分级- COPD严重度的分级,分级,特征,分级,特征,0:危险状态,肺功能正常慢性症状(咳嗽、咳痰),:轻度COPD,FEV1/FVC70%FEV180%的预计值有或没有慢性症状(咳嗽、咳痰),:中度COPD,FEV1/FVC70%30%FEV180%的预计值(A:50%FEV180%的预计值B:30%FEV150%的预计值)有或无慢性症状(咳嗽咳痰、呼吸困难),:重度COPD,FEV1/FVC70%FEV130%的预计值或FEV150%的预计值伴有呼吸衰竭或右心衰的临床表现,COPD,Airway obstruction
39、, constriction or EPP Shift up,Obstructive hypoventilation,Lack of surfactant,dysfunction of respiratory muscles,Diffision memembrane area ,V/Q imbalance,Restrictive hypoventilation,Diffusion disorder,Functional shunt or dead space like ventilation,Pathophysiology of COPD-induced RF, 3Alterations of
40、 function and metabolism,外呼吸障碍,血气异常,酸碱、电解质异常,各系统器官反应,代偿,失代偿,总体变化趋势,Acid-base imbalance and electrolyte disturbances,呼吸衰竭,缺 氧,CO2潴留,代酸,呼酸,呼碱,代碱,Effects on respiratory system,呼吸运动的变化,Effects on cardiovascular system,Mechanism of Pulmonary heart disease,Respiratory failure,肺心病:右心壁增厚,右心腔扩张,Cor pulmonale
41、,Cor pulmonale,肺源性心脏病的热点问题,检索词:pulmonary hypertension 2010 review hypoxia,Effects on central nervous system,呼吸衰竭,肺性脑病(pulmonary encephalopathy),+,Pulmonary encephalopathy is defined as the neuropsychiatric syndrome caused by respiratory failure,Effects on kidney,功能性肾衰,器质性肾衰,RF,Effects on digestive system,呼吸衰竭,胃肠粘膜出血、糜烂、溃疡形成, 4Principles of Treatment of Respiratory Insufficiency,Treating the causes and precipitating factors,Increasing PaO2 according to diagnosis,Decreasing PaCO2 by increasing ventilation,Treating the consequences,Pathophysiological basis of treatment,2010NSFC,Thank you!,