1、第二章复习题及第三章预习题参考答案1、什么是制度？举例说明什么是正式制度和非正式制度，并解释制度和组织的区别。答：一制度是一套行为规则。它设置关于社会、政治和经济行为的限制或约束规则。这些规则可以以法律，行政规则或一个组织的标准守则等形式被正式承认。制度的规则可能还是非正式的，例如，在餐桌礼仪和社会习俗等。示例，正规的制度包括民法，商法，和大学标准或行为（例如，认定抄袭或性骚扰） 。非正式制度的例子包括对生日礼物交换和餐桌礼仪，在拥挤的公交车上给老人让座。制度和组织机构的区别，就如宪法和美国政府的区别。后者宪法是一组管辖前者政府的规则。组织机构是个人或团体的联合，制度是对他们行为的限制和他们必
2、要遵守的规则。2，支持国际组织的观点是什么？反对国际组织的观点是什么？你认为那种观点更具有说服力？ 答：赞成观点：国际组织在控制国家或区域性危机及避免其国际传播方面，是至关重要的。他们通过提供一系列的确定的和已知的（透明）规则（制度），减少了国际经济的不确定性和增加稳定性。在许多情况下，他们解决了在国际经济中搭便车的问题，以确保提供（国际）公共物品，如融资解决流动性危机的最后贷款人，或在经济衰退时开放市场。反对论点：国际机构提供的解决问题的条件，超出了主权范围（可能会迫使采取不同于国家意愿或利益的国内政策） ，透明度（决策的机构可能被别人追求自己的利益所控制） ，意识形态（建议可能是不好的或有
3、偏见的） ，以及执行和调整成本（不对称议价能力和承受能力，实行费用） 。总体而言，批评者质疑国际制度产生经济上的不平等和加剧弱势群体的风险。这个问题的争论是强的并没有一个明确的结果。那一观点可以被看作是更有说服力呢？最关键的是要学生理解两种争论，并且学生能够发展一套他们自己的理由来支持自己的观点。3. Give the arguments for and against free trade agreements. How might the signing of a free trade agreement between the United States, Central America
4、, and the Dominican Republic have harmed Bangladesh? 3、自由贸易协定的好处和害处分别是什么？如果美国、中美国家和多米尼加共和国签订自由贸易协定对孟加拉国（亚洲）有什么影响？Answer: Proponents of RTAs view them as building blocks for freer, more open world trade. They are able to perform this function because it is easier for a few countries to reach agreemen
5、t on difficult trade matters than it is for a large number of countries. Furthermore, the domestic effects of a reduction of trade barriers are less dramatic since fewer countries are involved. Import flows and job losses and displacements are smaller and more easily managed. In addition, RTA member
6、s can experiment with new agreements, such as labor and environmental standards, that are too contentious in a larger set of negotiations. Opponents question these assumptions and argue that RTAs undermine progress toward multilateral agreements, such as the Doha Round of the WTO. They argue that RT
7、As polarize countries because they are discriminatory against nonmembers and because they disadvantage smaller countries that enter into agreements with large ones, since the small countries lack the ability to negotiate effectively and they are often unable to take advantage of the market opening o
8、f the larger country due to their limited infrastructure and other resources. 区域贸易协定的支持者视其为更自由，更开放的世界贸易的基石。他们能够实现这个功能，因为它更容易为少数几个国家就难以贸易问题达成协议比它的许多国家。此外，减少贸易壁垒的国内影响，因为少数国家参与那么戏剧性。进口流量和失业和位移更小，更易于管理。此外， RTA 会员可以尝试新的协议，如劳工和环境标准，过于有争议的一组谈判的更大。反对者质疑这些假设，认为区域贸易协定对破坏多边协定，如多哈回合世界贸易组织的进程。他们认为，区域贸易协定的国家分化，因为
9、他们是歧视非会员，并因为进入与路数协议，他们的劣势较小的国家，因为小国缺乏有效的谈判能力，他们往往无法采取的市场开放的好处较大的国家，由于其有限的基础设施和其他资源。Bangladesh may be hurt by a free trade agreement between the United States and Central America due to the trade diversion that might result. If Bangladesh is the lowest cost producer of apparel, for example, then a lo
10、wering of U.S. tariffs against Central America could result in production for the U.S. market shifting from Bangladesh to Central America. 孟加拉国可以通过美国与中美洲自由贸易协定，由于贸易转移可能导致的被伤害。如果孟加拉国的服装成本最低的生产商，例如，然后降低美国对中美洲关税，可能会导致生产针对美国市场的转变，从孟加拉到中美洲。4. What are public goods and how do they differ from private ones
11、? Give examples of each. 4、什么是公共产品？其与私有产品有什么区别？分别举例说明。Answer: Public goods are nondiminishable and nonexcludable. Private goods generally share neither of these characteristics. Private goods include most things that are bought and sold in private markets (restaurant meals, clothing, houses, cars, e
12、tc.) while public goods are often provided collectively. Public goods include national defense, public airways, civil and commercial codes, and so forth. 公共产品是 nondiminishable 和非排他性。私人物品一般没有分享这些特性。私人物品包括现买现卖私人市场的大多数事情（餐馆吃饭，服装，房子，汽车等），而公共物品往往是集体提供。公共物品包括国防，公共航空，民用和商业规范，等等。5. What are the main tasks o
13、r functions of (1) the International Monetary Fund, (2) the World Bank, 5、国际货币基金组织、世界银行、WTO 的主要任务和作用是什么？(3) the General Agreement on Tariffs and Trade, and (4) the World Trade Organization?Answers: (1) The IMFs role is to act as a lender of last resort in the case of debt crisis or foreign exchange
14、crisis. It provides technical expertise and advice and assists national governments with necessary but difficult reorganizations of their national economies. IMF 的角色是作为最后的手段在欧债危机或外汇危机的情况下，贷款人。它提供专业知识和咨询，并协助各国政府根据本国的经济需要，但难以重组。(2) The World Banks mission, in general terms, is to assist with the econo
15、mic development of nations through the provision of loans, technical expertise, and advice. 世界银行的使命，总体来说，是协助各国通过提供贷款，技术专长和建议的经济发展。(3) GATT is a series of multilateral trade negotiations and resulting treaties which binds the tariffs and trade policies of nations and limits their ability to arbitrari
16、ly change them. Its mission is to keep markets for goods open and to ensure that nations follow a set of rules governing fair trade. 关贸总协定是一系列的多边贸易谈判，并导致该条约的约束关税和国家的贸易政策，限制了他们的能力，随意更改。它的任务是保持市场开放的货物，并确保各国遵守一套管理公平交易规则。(4)The WTO is an umbrella organization created by the Uruguay round of GATT. Its ro
17、le is similar to the GATTs, but it has expanded its function to include agreements on services, agriculture, and textiles and apparel, all of which were omitted from the previous rounds of GATT. In addition, it provides rules for the resolution of trade disputes between nations and acts as a forum f
18、or the discussion and implementation of further reduction in trade barriers 世界贸易组织是由关贸总协定乌拉圭回合创建一个伞式组织。它的作用是相似的关贸总协定的，但它已经扩展了其功能包括：协议上的服务，农业，纺织品和服装，所有这些都来自前几轮关贸总协定被忽略。此外，它还提供了对国家和行为之间的贸易争端的讨论和实施进一步减少贸易壁垒论坛的解析规则。.6. When nations sign the GATT agreement, they bind their tariffs at their current level,
19、 or lower. Tariff binding means that they agree not to raise them except under unusual circumstances. Explain how tariff binding in the GATT prevents free riding during a global slowdown. 6、当各国签订关税和贸易总协定后，它们的关税被限制在现有水平或者更低。关税限制意味着除了特殊情况外，一国不会提高关税。解释关贸总协定中的关税限制在全球经济低迷时如何阻止搭便车行为？Answer: During a globa
20、l slowdown, nations may be tempted to raise barriers to imports. The hope is that reduced imports will provide greater incentive for domestic production and add jobs in import competing industries. This part of the strategy usually works but at the cost of the loss of jobs in export industries. Expo
21、rt industries are hurt if other nations retaliate and impose similar barriers to imports. 在全球经济放缓，国家可能会试图提高进口壁垒。希望是进口减少将会对国内生产提供更大的激励和进口竞争产业增加就业机会。该战略的这一部分通常是工作，但在工作中出口行业的损失为代价。出口行业受到了伤害，如果其他国家采取报复行动，并处类似的进口壁垒。The problem is that every country wants to let the others be the ones to keep their market
22、s open. The free riding problem occurs because nations that impose import barriers are free riding on the policies of nations that do not similarly impose barriers. Tariff binding eliminates this possibility. 问题是，每个国家都希望让别人能真正继续开放市场。发生的搭便车问题，因为国家的征收进口壁垒的国家不征收类似障碍的政策搭便车。关税约束消除了这种可能性7. Kindlebergers s
23、tudy of the Great Depression of the 1930s led him to believe that market economies are sometimes unstable and that nations can get locked into prolonged downturns. Other economists are not convinced. Suppose that you disagree with Kindleberger and that you believe that market based economies are inh
24、erently stable. How would you view the need for international institutions to address the provision of each of the public goods in Table 2.3?7、金德尔伯格对 20 世纪 30 年代大萧条研究后认为市场经济有时候是不稳定的，一国经济会长期深陷低迷状态，其他经济学家则不愿苟同。假设你不同意金德尔伯格的观点，并且认为市场经济本质上是稳定的。你怎样看待需要国际制度来解决教材表 2.5 中所列公共产品的供给问题？Answer: If the internation
25、al economy is inherently stable, then the need for international institutions decreases. Most of the cases where there is a failure to provide the public goods in Table 2.3 are a consequence of the failure governments to implement sound economic policies. 如果国际经济本质上是稳定的，那么就需要国际机构减少。大部分地方有一个未能提供公共物品如表
26、 2.3 的情况下，是政府失败的结果实施稳健的经济政策。Governments may try to close markets during a recession but enlightened governments recognize this as self-defeating since other nations will retaliate. Government closure of markets is a governmental failure, not a market failure 各国政府可能会在经济衰退期间关闭市场，但开明的政府认识到这是弄巧成拙，因为其他国家
27、会采取报复行动。市场对政府关闭是一个政府失败，而不是市场失灵.Private capital markets will channel funds to developing countries if these countries have the right policies. Again, the problem of capital shortages in developing countries may be as much a failure of developing countrys economic policies as it is a failure of market
28、s. 私人资本市场将引导资金向发展中国家，如果这些国家有正确的政策。同样，在发展中国家资本短缺的问题，可能是因为很多发展中国家的经济政策，因为这是市场失效的故障。Private markets will seek out payment methods that are acceptable to all the parties involved. 私募市场将寻求可以接受的所有当事方的付款方式。Financial crises caused by a shortage of liquidity are an indicator of deeper problems. At times, it
29、is necessary to let bad firms fail. These types of crises will burn themselves out and leave little lasting impact on the international economy. 所造成的流动性短缺，金融危机的深层问题的一个指标。有时，有必要让坏行失败。这些类型的危机会烧身出来，留在国际经济中的小持久的影响。8. What are the five main types of regional trade agreements and what are their main chara
30、cteristics? 8、五种主要的区域贸易协定是什么？其主要特征分别是什么？Answer: The five main types of regional trade agreements are: (1) a partial trade agreement; (2) a free trade area; (3) a customs union; (4) a common market; and (5) an economic union.(1) A partial trade agreement frees up trade between two or more countries i
31、n a few goods. An example is the U.S.-Canada Auto Pact which created free trade in cars and car parts in the 1960s. It later formed the basis for the U.S.-Canada free trade agreement. 的部分贸易协议释放了两个或两个以上的国家之间的贸易在一些商品。一个例子是，美国与加拿大汽车条约而建立的自由贸易汽车及汽车零部件 20 世纪 60 年代。它后来形成的基础美加自由贸易协定。(2) A free trade area a
32、llows goods and services to cross international borders without paying a tariff and without limitations imposed by quotas. Many items, such as labor and environmental issues, are usually left out of the agreement. Example: NAFTA. 自由贸易区允许货物和服务跨越国际边界，而无需支付关税和无配额所施加的限制。许多项目，如劳动力和环境问题，通常被排除在协定。例如：北美自由贸易
33、协定。(3) A customs union is a free trade area plus a common set of tariffs toward non-members. In this situation, members have free trade area with each other and agree to levy the same tariff on imports from non-members. Examples: MERCOSUR, and from the mid-1970s to early 1990s, the European Union. 关
34、税同盟是一个自由贸易区，以及一套通用的对非成员国的关税。在这种情况下，成员有自由贸易区与对方并同意征收非成员的进口相同的关税。例子：南方共同市场，并从 70 年代中期到90 年代初，欧盟(4) A common market is a customs union plus an agreement to allow the free mobility of inputs such as labor and capital. Example: the European Union in the 1990s.(5) An economic union is a common market with
35、 substantial coordination of macroeconomic policies, including a common currency, and harmonization of standards and regulations. Example: the 12 European Union members that participate in the euro. 经济联盟是一个共同市场与宏观经济政策，包括共同货币和统一的标准和法规的实质性协调。例如：在 12 个欧洲联盟成员参与欧元。Since most formal agreements combine inc
36、omplete elements, this classification is more clear-cut than the messier reality. 由于大多数的正式协议不完全结合的元素，这种分类更明确的较混乱的现实。9. Critics of the global institutions have a variety of complaints about the WTO, the IMF, and the World Bank. Explain the main categories of complaints. 9、评论家们对世界贸易组织、国际货币基金组织和世界银行有各种
37、各样的反对意见。列举几种主要的反对意见。Answer: The text describes the problems with institutions in terms of issues of sovereignty (may force adoption of domestic policies against nations will or interests), transparency (decision making at institutions may be dominated by others pursuing their own interests), ideolog
38、y (advice may be bad or biased), and implementation and adjustment costs (asymmetries in negotiation power and in ability to absorb costs imposed). They especially question the dominance of United States and industrialized nations in determining the policies institutions set for client countries, si
39、nce those policies may be wrong or biased or impose particular harm to some groups in the client nations populations. Overall, critics question whether institutions generate economic inequality and compound risks to vulnerable groups. 该文描述了机构的问题，在主权问题上（可能会迫使采取国内政策对国家的意愿或利益） ，透明度（决策的机构可能被别人主宰追求自己的利益）
40、 ，思想（咨询可能是坏或有偏见的） ，以及执行和调整成本（不对称议价能力和承受能力，实行费用） 。他们特别质疑美国和工业化国家的主导地位决定了客户国家规定的政策机构，因为这些政策可能是错误或偏颇的，或对特定损害某些群体在客户国家的人口。总体而言，批评者质疑机构产生对弱势群体的经济不平等和复合风险。第三章预习1.Explain how a nation can gain from trade even though not everyone is made better off. Isnt this a contradiction? 解释即使不是每个人的福利都得到改善，一国仍能从贸易中获利。这是
41、矛盾的吗？Answer: This is not a contradiction. The gains from trade imply that the winners could compensate the losers completely and still have gains left over. Some people may lose jobs (in the example in the text, as the United States moved toward specialization in steel, American workers were shifted
42、 out of the bread industry and into the steel industry), but others benefit from the higher demand for their product (workers in the steel industry). As long as the winners gains are greater than the losers losses, we can conclude that the nation wins. 这不是一个矛盾。从贸易的收益意味着获奖者可以完全补偿失败者，仍然有剩下的收益。有些人可能会失去
43、工作（在本例中的文本，如美国钢铁走向专业化，美国工人被转移出来的面包行业，进入钢铁行业），但对他们的产品需求上升他人受益（工人在钢铁行业） 。只要获奖者的收益是大于失败者的损失，我们可以得出结论，国家赢了。2. Economic nationalists in developed countries worry that international trade is destroying the national economy. A common complaint is that trade agreements open the economy to increased trade wi
44、th countries where workers are paid a fraction of what they earn at home. Explain the faulty logic of this argument. 发达国家的经济民族主义者担心国际贸易正在毁灭其国内经济。一个常见的抱怨是贸易协定开放了一国的经济，使其增加了与那些工资收入仅为本国工人工资一半的国家之间的贸易。解释这种观点的错误逻辑。Answer: The error in logic is the failure to take into account the differences in productiv
45、ity. The low-wage workers in less developed countries in general are paid less because they produce less output during each hour of labor. Furthermore, the developed nations and the less developed nations are not in competition for economic growth. Growth in one country benefits the other through an
46、 increase in the demand for its products. Economic nationalists tend to view trade as a zero-sum game in which one side loses and the other wins. 在逻辑错误是未能考虑到生产率的差异。低工资的工人在欠发达国家，一般是因为他们的劳动力的每一个小时内产生较少的输出的薪水。此外，发达国家和欠发达的国家都没有对经济增长的竞争。在一个国家经济发展带来好处另一方面通过增加对其产品的需求。经济民族主义者往往把贸易作为一个零和游戏，一方失去的其他获胜。3. Many
47、people believe that the goal of international trade should be to create jobs. Consequently, when they see workers laid off due to a firms inability to compete against cheaper and better imports, they assume that trade must be bad for the economy. Is this assumption correct? Why, or why not? 很多人认为国际贸
48、易的目标应该是创造就业。因此，当他们看到由于企业没有能力与更便宜且更优质的进口商品相竞争而造成失业时，他们就假设贸易对经济肯定是有害的。这种假设正确吗？为什么？Answer: The goal of trade is to improve a nations allocation of its resources so that they are directed to their most valuable use. Trade is not about creating jobs, but is about raising the standard of living through a
49、more efficient allocation of resources. Trade may cause workers to become laid off if they are in inefficient industries that do not produce according to the national comparative advantage. While this may be hard on the people who lose their jobs, it also frees up labor and capital so it can be directed to better uses. 业的目标是要改善其资源一个国家的分配，使它们被引导到他们最有价值的用途。贸易是不是创造就业机会，但透过资源更有效地分配提高生活水准。贸易可能会导致工人成为下岗，如果他们在低效率的产业，根据国家的比较优势不产生。虽然这可能是很难对谁失去工作的人来说，这也释放了劳动力和资本，因此它可以被引导到更好的用途4. Suppose that Germany decides to become self-sufficient in bananas and even to export them. Inorder to accomplish t
