1、浅谈科技论文写作(题目 摘要 前言 结论)科技论文的基本结构：一、 题目： 题目不宜过长 反映文章的主要内容和关键问题 避免：Highest, best, first, it is the record 不要滥用定冠词（近来的趋势是省去不必要的 the。标题中一般省略 the）而如何命名一个恰当的题目，我们可以参照下面的方法： 列出研究结果创新性内容和讨论的重要结论，找出其中的关键词，这是标题的核心 列出可高度概括、反映研究主题、方法和研究对象的词语，这些也是标题和关键词的组成 将上述关键词按重要性顺序依次排列，选出其中的五个作为最终关键词的主要候选对象 将前四个关键词依次排列，并添加适当的辅
2、助修饰性词语构成标题 简洁性检查。检索上述标题是否超过字数限制，如果超限，尝试简化修饰性词语；如果还超限，尝试去掉其中最不重要的一个关键词，使标题满足字数要求 标题通顺性检查。换言之就是顺一下标题，使读起来上口。 新颖性检查。这样做的最终目的是要使文章的标题更加吸引读者的眼球，引起读者的注意 二、 摘要一篇科技论文的摘要通常由以下五个部分组成： 研究背景的简介（因为字数的限制可以没有，或者简单介绍） 研究主题或目的 研究方法 重要研究结果 重要结论在摘要的撰写中，我们需要注意以下几点问题： 文摘叙述要简明，删繁从简，取消不必要的字句。如：用“increase”代替“has been found
3、 to increase”.如“It is reported”,“Extensive investigations show that ”, “The author discusses”, “This paper concerned with” 可以删去。 用过去时态叙述作者工作，用现在时态叙述作者结论。尽量简化一些措辞和重复的单元，如：不用 at a temperature of 250 to 300 而用 at 250-300 文摘第一句话切不可与题名 (Title) 重复 注意冠词用法，分清 a 是泛指，the 是专指。 （关于冠词的用法下面有进一步的补充说明） 用重要的事实开头，尽量避
4、免用辅助从句开头。如：用“Power consumption of telephone switching systems was determined from data obtained experimentally”，而不用”From data obtained experimentally, power consumption of telephone switching systems was determined”. 文摘中涉及他人的工作或研究成果时，尽量列出他们的名字。 文章题目第一词切不可用冠词 The，A，An 和 And（单位名称也不用 The Institute ）冠词的
5、用法特别复杂，科技英语写作中冠词用错的情况极为普遍。许多人往往在应该使用冠词的地方不用冠词；有些人则错用冠词。1、 到底用 a 还是 an 取决于不定冠词后紧跟的第一个音素（而不是第一个字母）是否为元音，若是元音，则一定要用 an。2、 论文、书籍的各级标题前的冠词可以省略。3、 在科技论文写作中，专有名词主要涉及到人名、地名、单位名称、机构名称和国家名称，下面分别加以说明。I、人名前不加冠词，如： Maxwell（麦克斯韦） ，Faraday（法拉第） ，Einstein（爱因斯坦） 。II、地名单独使用时通常不加冠词，如：Beijing（北京） ，Xian（西安） ，Shaanxi（陕西；
6、注意：由于英语中没有四声，无法区分“陕西”和“山西” ，因此“陕西”的英语为Shaanxi，即其中多一个字母 a） ， Chicago（芝加哥） ，New York（纽约） 。III、由若干词构成的国名、组织机构名前通常加定冠词。中华人民共和国The Peoples Republic of China美利坚合众国The United States of AmericaIV、图示说明文字中一般可以省略冠词。图 2-1 用旋转矢量地垂直分量来产生正弦波Fig. 2-1 Generation of sine wave by vertical component of rotating vector.
7、（注：generation 前省略了 the；sine wave 前省略了 a；vertical 前省略了 the；rotating前省略了 a。另外，科技英语中不论图示的说明是否是一个句子，末尾均要加句号）V、方程、表达式、公式、图表、章页、页码等后跟数字表示“第。 。 。 。 。 。 ”时，其前面不得加冠词。使用方程(2-1) 时必须注意符号。In using Equation (2-1), attention must be paid to the sign.这一点将在第五章加以讨论。This point will be discussed in Chapter 5.三、 前言前言，在不
8、同的科技期刊中也可能被称作“引言”或“序言” 。它在一篇科技论文中的作用可以概括为四个字“开宗明义” 。 一般前言可以由以下几个部分组成：下面来看一个例子：New approach to optical diffraction tomography yielding a vector equation of diffraction tomography and a novel tomographic microscope1. IntroductionThe wave scattered by a weakly scattering object when it is illuminated w
9、ith a parallel coherent light beam can be recorded on a receiving surface. From that recorded wave it is possible to reconstruct a bidimensional, spherical subset of the three-dimensional frequency representation of that object. Using a series of illumination beams having different directions, diffe
10、rent subsets of the objects three-dimensionalfrequency representation can be reconstructed. The three-dimensional frequency representation of the objects scattering potential can be obtained by superimposing a sufficient number of these subsets. The corresponding equations of diffraction tomography
11、were originally established by Wolf (1969) for scalar fields, and were given a geometrical interpretation by Dndliker Walker, 1980). The prototype realized after Turpins proposal (Woodford et al. , 1996) used an illuminating wave having a constant direction, and a rotating sample. The accuracy of th
12、e image was limited by the precision of the rotating positioner used and by the fact that only a reduced part of the frequency space could be filled. The most important aspect of the present paper is that we successfully use phase-shifting holography with successive illumination beams of different d
13、irections, as was originally suggested by Wolf (1969). This is made possible by an accurate compensation of the non-controlled phase shifts, which itself results from a complete frequency-space analysis of the image acquisition method. 提出方法转折提出缺点所以技术不完美罗列前人的实验以及不足归纳总结本文的研究的方向The aim pursued in the p
14、resent study is to obtain a high-quality three-dimensional image of an object from measurements of the diffracted light. Various methods have been successfully used in the past in order to obtain such images. Streibl (1985) introduced a method in which a 3D data set is obtained by successively recor
15、ding image slices, and this data set is later deconvolved to eliminate out-of-focus noise. In Streibls microscope the electric field of the scattered wave cannot be determined directly, and the mutual-intensity function must be introduced. However, the simultaneous obtainment of the index of refract
16、ion and absorptivity in the entire object would require the acquisition of a complex 3D data set. As Streibls microscope only allows the acquisition of a real data set, difficulties arise with samples that comprise both absorptive structures and phase structures. The advantage of using phase-shiftin
17、g holography, as in the present paper, is that it allows the direct acquisition of the scattered wave. This simplifies calculations as there is no need to introduce the mutual-intensity function. More importantly, it allows the acquisition of complex data, which renders possible a high-quality imagi
18、ng of samples that have both phase structures and absorptive structures.Kawata et al . (1987) and Nakamura et al. (1987) have introduced a tomographic method in which the object is successively illuminated by plane waves having different directions. In these two papers the sample is assumed to be pu
19、rely absorptive, so that in principle Streibls technique would yield good-quality results. However, in Streibls method, the 3D system is angularly bandlimited by the aperture of the objective. This implies that only a part of the objects 3D frequency representation can be obtained. The papers by Kaw
20、ataet al. (1987) and Nakamura et al . (1987) are an attempt to recover some of the missing information by using appropriate constraints for reconstruction, thus improving image quality. In the present paper, and in the case of a purely absorptive sample, we obtain the same part of the frequency repr
21、esentation that is obtained by Streibl in the limit case of incoherent illumination. The image that we finally obtain for absorptive samples is similar to Streibls deconvolved images. However, we do not attempt to constrain reconstruction and partially recover the missing part of the frequency repre
22、sentation, as is done in the papers by Kawata et al.(1987) and Nakamura et al. (1987). 3D imaging of phase structures was successfully realized by Noda et al . (1990, 1992). In these two papers, the authors simultaneously use phase-contrast and successive illumination by plane waves varying in direc
23、tion. Their method can be regarded as a holographic technique using the phase-shifted illumination beam as a reference beam. It yields good results but it is limited to phase structures. Another experimental method is the use of a series of illuminating waves of varying direction, combined with a de
24、tection method based on in-line holography (Devaney Maleki et al. , 1992). In such methods, the absence of phase shifting is partly compensated by appropriate phase retrieval algorithms. These methods have been the subject of extensive research and improvements, and have been applied to translationa
25、lly invariant objects such as fibres (Wedberg Wedberg et al. , 1995). Although phase-shifting holography seems a straightforward method to record both the phase and amplitude of a scattered wave, its practical implementation has faced difficulties that are mostly related to the fact that only phase
26、differences can be measured, and that phase relations between distinct waves cannot be accurately controlled. In this paper, we use a measurement-orientated approach to diffraction tomography, taking into account not only the scattered wave and the illuminating wave, but also the reference wave and
27、the phase relations between these three waves. This is facilitated by an appropriate frequency-space analysis. The mathematical basis for this analysis is first established in the vector case, yielding a vector equation of diffraction tomography in a very simple form. This frequency-space analysis u
28、ses a frequency representation of waves, which is made possible by considering linear combinations of homogeneous plane waves rather than outgoing waves, which do not have a frequency representation. The measurement-orientated approach of diffraction tomography is then presented within the framework
29、 of a concrete prototype detecting the scattered wave in a Fourier plane. A simplified scalar approximation of the vector equations is used to describe this prototype, still taking advantage of the frequency representation of waves. An appropriate equation is obtained for reconstruction, which in pa
30、rticular compensates for the random phase shifts that occur between the illuminating waves and the reference wave. 罗列很多方法后，总结了本文的实验方法。Experimental results are then briefly presented and shown to be in agreement with theoretical predictions.本文罗列的例子就很多。前人的方法罗列出来，各自缺点是什么，列出了一条实验线索链，下一种方法是上一种方法缺点的补充，再过渡
31、到本文的研究中，是基于前者实验的扩展。总结：在科技论文前言部分的写作中，一般开头都是先交代一些研究内容的背景，技术在各个领域的应用情况和意义，也有开门见山型的，即最开始就给研究的内容一个定义。然后，指出研究中存在的一些问题，回顾以往前人的一些研究（一般是按时间的顺序，研究成果上也有递进的意思，即一个指标解决了，但是还存在尚未解决的问题，再接着给出一个例子，解决了上面的问题，但还有不足，最后承转到本文的研究中），用到一些实验成果对比，哪些方面还存在不完善的地方，哪些地方还存在分歧。最后总结本文的研究结果，有些是基于某项的实验的扩展延伸，有些是自己另辟蹊径的。在一些前言中，最后还会分别罗列说明文章
32、主体研究的各个部分是什么，或者本文研究成果的优点各是什么。四、 结论：结论部分是全文高度概括和总结，是对正文的最终结论，应准确、完整、精炼。一般由下面三个部分组成： 归纳总结本论文主要研究的内容和结论，意义 本论文主要创新点（是基于前人结论的扩展延伸，还是另辟蹊径，有了新的创新结果） 研究存在的问题、不足或进一步工作的设想 还需要注意的是要在用词和所使用句型上避免与引言、讨论中相关内容的雷同。换一种句式或者表达的方式，这样比较好，不要老是用一种句型或表达方式。养成总结收集一些句式的习惯，这样的优点在于： 有利于避免不必要的重复 有利于比较地道、规范的英语表达 有利于写作中的多样化表达 总结的一
33、些句式供同学们参考：1、 举例说明，罗列方法的一些表达方式： For example, highly sensitive sensors, in which the critical resonance condition of the surface plasmon is used, have been developed to measure refractive indices. The advantages of evanescent-wave holography with SPR are as follows:（罗列出来） The zeroth-order diffraction
34、of the illumination light does not appear in the reconstruction field. Such a limitation is dictated by the dispersion characteristic, Kz = , of the medium 2,2surrounding the sample, which causes the high spatial-frequency components (i.e. large Kx,y) from the sample to decay exponentially with dist
35、ances and ultimately become lost in the far field. The most important aspect of the present paper is that we successfully use phase-shifting holography with successive illumination beams of different directions, as was originally suggested by Wolf (1969). The advantage of using phase-shifting hologr
36、aphy, as in the present paper, is that it allows the direct acquisition of the scattered wave. There are（there be的句型引出1、2、3、4） several challenges in extending such models into the domain of NEMS. First, sub wavelength NEMS sizes require the accurate solution of the electromagnetic （EM） field equatio
37、ns in the vicinity of the device. Second, due to the layered nature of most NEMS, the EM field travels in several different media, thus necessitating a careful consideration of material properties. Third, incorporation of the solutions in the device near field into a realistic model with a far-field
38、 detector is computationally intensive. Several key elements ought to be considered（引出1、2、3、4）: （a） the effective NEMS interaction with the EM field, （b） the propagation of the EM field to the detector, and （c） the detection of the optical signal via the photo detector circuitry. At the center of th
39、e approach presented here is a numerical analysis of the EM field in the vicinity of the NEMS.2、 意思递进的一些表达方式： Another more recent example is the demonstration of an antenna-based optical microscopy in the imaging of single fluorescent molecules in both dried as well as wet states 11 More specificall
40、y, we look into a system comprising of an oblate dielectric cavity with a high major/minor ratio buried just beneath the surface of a semi-infinite metal bulk. More importantly, it allows the acquisition of complex data, which renders possible a highquality imaging of samples that have both phase st
41、ructures and absorptive structures. In this paper, we use a measurement-orientated approach to diffraction tomography, taking into account not only the scattered wave and the illuminating wave, but also the reference wave and the phase relations between these three waves. Please note that the differ
42、ence of the presented approach in comparison to other EDOF technologies is not in the optical configuration but rather in the design of an all optical approach having binary and spatially low resolution optical element. It is this efficiency that has made inversion methods based on exact field compu
43、tations feasible again, even compared with gradient-type methods. Further confirmed by recent experimental studies is the ability of imaging through a thin silver film with the resolution up to 0/6 by Fang et al 23. 3、 提出过去研究的局限性，甚至带有批判语气，起到承转本文研究方法的一些表达方式： Unfortunately(一般开头有一个转折), the inaccessibil
44、ity of the interfaces between contacting membranes to the probe tip has hampered （表示方法的局限性）the applications of NSOM to cell-surface studies. However, when successive illumination beams of different directions are used, it is generally not possible to control the phase of these beams.(一个转折提出问题，承转到本文的
45、研究中) In Streibls microscope the electric field of the scattered wave cannot be determined directly, and the mutual-intensity function must be introduced. Several previous approaches were suggested involving digital post processing 1-5, or aperture apodization by absorptive mask 6-10, or diffraction
46、optical phase elements such as multi focal lenses or spatially dense distributions that suffer from significant divergence of energy into regions that are not the regions of interest However, the struggle to push optical lithography to higher-resolution performance is moving the technique away from
47、its strengths, involving more complexity and cost than ever before. New cost-effective methods are needed to overcome the constraining factors in optical lithography, in particular, to take the technique past the diffraction limit without the huge expense. Although a conventional microscopy system c
48、oupled with a spectrometer could fulfill this goal, an equivalent system is practically non-existing in the realm of nano-scale imaging. It is the main objective of this paper to present such a system.(提出现有问题，承转到本文的议题中 ) Although super lens constructed with an uniaxial metamaterial layered structure
49、 capable of transferring high spatial-frequency energies from a sample plane onto a far-field plane may be used for cell-surface studies 14, a drawback, however, is that high-resolution can be attained only within a very narrow range of wavelengths, where the radial propagation vector vanishes 14. Although phase-shifting holography seems a straightforward method to record both the phase and amplitude of a scattered wave,
