1、archaea (domain Archaea), any of a group of single-celled prokaryotic organisms (that is, organisms whose cells lack a defined nucleus) that have distinct molecular characteristics separating them from bacteria (the other, more prominent group of prokaryotes) as well as from eukaryotes (organisms, i
2、ncluding plants andanimals, whose cells contain a defined nucleus). Archaea is derived from the Greek word archaios, meaning “ancient” or “primitive,” and indeed some archaea exhibit characteristics worthy of that name. Members of the archaea include: Pyrolobus fumarii, which holds the upper tempera
3、ture limit for life at 113 C (235 F) and was found living in hydrothermal vents; species of Picrophilus, which were isolated from acidic soils in Japan and are the most acid-tolerant organisms knowncapable of growth at around pH 0; and the methanogens, which produce methane gas as a metabolic by-pro
4、duct and are found in anaerobic environments, such as in marshes, hot springs, and the guts of animals, including humans.In some systems for classifying all of life, the archaea constitute one of three great domains of living creatures. In 1977 American microbiologist Carl Woese, on the basis of ana
5、lyses of ribosomal RNA, proposed that the prokaryotes, long considered to be a single group of organisms (essentially, the bacteria), actually consist of two separate lineages. Woese called these two lineages the eubacteria and the archaebacteria. These names were subsequently changed to bacteria an
6、d archaea (the archaea being distinctly different from bacteria), but Woeses splitting of the prokaryotes into two groups has remained, and all living organisms are now considered by many biologists to fall into one of three great domains: Archaea, Bacteria, and Eukarya. Further molecular analysis h
7、as shown that domain Archaea consists of two major subdivisions, the Crenarchaeota and the Euryarchaeota, and two minor ancient lineages, the Korarchaeota and the Nanoarchaeota.Table Of ContentsHabitats of the archaeaArchaea are microorganisms that define the limits of life on Earth. They were origi
8、nally discovered and described in extreme environments, such ashydrothermal vents and terrestrial hot springs. They were also found in a diverse range of highly saline, acidic, and anaerobic environments.Although many of the cultured archaea are extremophiles, these organisms in their respective ext
9、reme habitats represent only a minority of the total diversity of the Archaea domain. The majority of archaea cannot be cultured within the laboratory setting, and their ubiquitous presence in global habitats has been realized through the use of culture-independent techniques. One commonly used cult
10、ure-independent technique is the isolation and analysis of nucleic acids (i.e.,DNA and RNA) directly from an environment, rather than the analysis of cultured samples isolated from the same environment. Culture-independent studies have shown that archaea are abundant and fulfill important ecological
11、 roles in cold and temperate ecosystems. Uncultivated organisms in the subdivision Crenarchaeota are postulated to be the most abundant ammonia-oxidizing organisms in soils and to account for a large proportion (roughly 20 percent) of the microorganisms present in the picoplankton in the worlds ocea
12、ns. In the subdivision Euryarchaeota, uncultivated organisms in deep-sea marine sediments are responsible for the removal of methane, a potentgreenhouse gas, via anaerobic oxidation of methane stored in these sediments. In contrast, uncultivated methanogenic (methane-producing) euryarchaea from terr
13、estrial anaerobic environments, such as rice fields, are estimated to generate approximately 1025 percent of global methane emissions.The cultured representatives of the Crenarchaeota are from high-temperature environments, such as hot springs and submarine hydrothermal vents. Likewise, cultured mem
14、bers of the Euryarchaeota include organisms isolated from hot environments, organisms that are methanogenic, and organisms that grow vigorously in high-salt environments (halophiles). Organisms in the lineages Korarchaeota and Nanoarchaeota also inhabit high-temperature environments; however, the na
15、noarchaea are highly unusual because they grow and divide on the surface of another archaea, Ignicoccus. Nanoarchaea, which were discovered in 2002, contain both the smallest known living cell (1/100th the size of Escherichia coli) and the smallest known genome (480 kilobases 1 kilobase = 1,000 base
16、 pairs of DNA; for comparison, the human genome contains 3 million kilobases). Members of the Korarchaeota and Nanoarchaeota have not been detected inpure culture; rather, they have been detected only in mixed laboratory cultures.Archaea are also found living in association with eukaryotes; for exam
17、ple, methanogenic archaea are present in the digestive systems of some animals, including humans. Some archaea also form symbiotic relationships with sponges; in fact, Cenarchaeum symbiosum was grown in the laboratory with its host sponge and was the first nonthermophilic Crenarchaeota to be culture
18、d and described.Characteristics of the archaeaAlthough the domains Bacteria, Archaea, and Eukarya were founded on genetic criteria, biochemical properties also indicate that the archaea form an independent group within the prokaryotes and that they share traits with both the bacteria and the eukaryo
19、tes. Major examples of these traits include:1. Cell walls: virtually all bacteria contain peptidoglycan in their cell walls; however, archaea and eukaryotes lack peptidoglycan. Various types of cell walls exist in the archaea. Therefore, the absence or presence of peptidoglycan is a distinguishing f
20、eature between the archaea and bacteria.2. Fatty acids: bacteria and eukaryotes produce membrane lipids consisting of fatty acids linked by ester bonds to a molecule of glycerol. In contrast, the archaea have ether bonds connecting fatty acids to molecules of glycerol. Although a few bacteria also c
21、ontain ether-linked lipids, no archaea have been discovered that contain ester-linked lipids.3. Complexity of RNA polymerase: transcription within all types of organisms is performed by an enzyme called RNA polymerase, which copies a DNA template into an RNA product. Bacteria contain a simple RNA po
22、lymerase consisting of four polypeptides. However, both archaea and eukaryotes have multiple RNA polymerases that contain multiple polypeptides. For example, the RNA polymerases of archaea contain more than eight polypeptides. The RNA polymerases of eukaryotes also consist of a high number of polype
23、ptides (1012), with the relative sizes of the polypeptides being similar to that of hyperthermophilic archaeal RNA polymerase. Therefore, the archaeal RNA polymerases more closely resemble RNA polymerases of eukaryotes rather than those of bacteria.4. Protein synthesis: various features of protein s
24、ynthesis in the archaea are similar to those of eukaryotes but not of bacteria. A prominent difference is that bacteria have an initiator tRNA (transfer RNA) that has a modified methionine, whereas eukaryotes and archaea have an initiator tRNA with an unmodified methionine.5. Metabolism: various typ
25、es of metabolism exist in both archaea and bacteria that do not exist in eukaryotes, including nitrogen fixation, denitrification, chemolithotrophy, and hyperthermophilic growth. Methanogenesis (the production of methane as a metabolic by-product) occurs only in the domain Archaea, specifically in t
26、he subdivision Euryarchaeota. Classical photosynthesis using chlorophyll has not been found in any archaea.The metabolic strategies utilized by the archaea are thought to be extraordinarily diverse in nature. For example, halophilic archaea appear to be able to thrive in high-salt environments becau
27、se they house a special set of genes encoding enzymes for a metabolic pathway that limits osmosis. That metabolic pathway, known as the methylaspartate pathway, represents a unique type of anaplerosis(the process of replenishing supplies of metabolic intermediates; in this instance the intermediate
28、is methylaspartate). Halophilic archaeans, which include Haloarcula marismortui, a model organism used in scientific research, are thought to have acquired the unique set of genes for the methylaspartate pathway via a process known as lateral gene transfer, in which genes are passed from one species to another.
