1、 外文翻译 原文 The Diamond of National Advantage Material Source:The competition advantage of nationsAuthor:Michael EPoter Why are certain companies based in certain nations capable of consistent innovation? Why do they ruthlessly pursue improvements, seeking an evermore sophisticated source of competitiv
2、e advantage? Why are they able to overcome the substantial barriers to change and innovation that so often accompany success? The answer lies in four broad attributes of a nation, attributes that individually and as a system constitute the diamond of national advantage, the playing field that each n
3、ation establishes and operates for its industries. These attributes are. 1. Factor Conditions. The nations position in factors of production, such as skilled labor or infrastructure, necessary to compete in a given industry. 2. Demand Conditions. The nature of home-market demand for the industrys pr
4、oduct or service. 3. Related and Supporting Industries. The presence or absence in the nation of supplier industries and other related industries that are internationally competitive. 4. Firm Strategy, Structure, and Rivalry. The conditions in the nation governing how companies are created, organize
5、d, and managed, as well as the nature of domestic rivalry. These determinants create the national environment in which companies are born and learn how to compete. (See the diagram “Determinants of National Competitive Advantage.”) Each point on the diamond-and the diamond as a system-affects essent
6、ial ingredients for achieving international competitive success: the availability of resources in an industry; the information that shapes the opportunities that companies perceive and the directions in which they deploy their resources and skills: the goals of the owners, managers, and individuals
7、in companies; the pressures on companies to invest and innovate. (See the insert “How the Diamond Works: The Italian Ceramic Tile Industry.”) When a national environment permits and supports the most rapid accumulation of specialized assets and skills sometimes simply because of greater effort and c
8、ommitment-companies gains a competitive advantage. When a national environment affords better ongoing information and insight into product and process needs, companies gain a competitive advantage. Finally, when the national environment pressures companies to innovate and invest, companies both gain
9、 a competitive advantage and upgrade those advantages over time. Factor Conditions. According to standard economic theory, factors of production-labor, land, natural resources, capital, infrastructure will determine the flow of trade. A nation will export those goods that make most use of the factor
10、s with which it is relatively well endowed. This doctrine, whose origins date back to Adam Smith and David Ricardo and that is embedded in classical economics, is at best incomplete and at worst incorrect. In the sophisticated industries that form the backbone of any advanced economy, a nation does
11、not inherit but instead creates the most important factors of production-such as skilled human resources or a scientific base. Moreover, the stock of factors that a nation enjoys at a particular time is less important than the rate and efficiency with which it creates, upgrades, and deploys them in
12、particular industries. The most important factors of production are those that involve sustained and heavy investment and are specialized. Basic factors, such as a pool of labor or a local raw-material source, do not constitute an advantage in knowledge-intensive industries. Companies can access the
13、m easily through a global strategy or circumvent them through technology. Contrary to conventional wisdom, simply having a general work force that is high school or even college educated represents no competitive advantage in modern international competition. To support competitive advantage, a fact
14、or must be highly specialized to an industrys particular needs-a scientific institute specialized in optics, a pool of venture capital to fund software companies. These factors are scarcer, more difficult for foreign competitors to imitate-and they require sustained investment to create. Nations suc
15、ceed in industries where they are particularly good at factor creation. Competitive advantage results from the presence of world-class institutions that first create specialized factors and then continually work to upgrade them. Denmark has two hospitals that concentrate in studying and treating dia
16、betes-and a world-leading export position in insulin. Holland has premier research institutes in the cultivation, packaging, and shipping of flowers, where it is the worlds export leader. What is not so obvious, however, is that selective disadvantages in the more basic factors can prod a company to
17、 innovate and upgrade-a disadvantage in a static model of competition can become an advantage in a dynamic one. When there is an ample supply of cheap raw materials or abundant labor, companies can simply rest on these advantages and often deploy them inefficiently. But when companies face a selecti
18、ve disadvantage, like high land costs, labor shortages, or the lack of local raw materials, they must innovate and upgrade to compete. Implicit in the oft-repeated Japanese statement,” We are an island nation with no natural resources.”Is the understanding that these deficiencies have only served to
19、 spur Japans competitive innovation. Just-in-time production, for example, economized on prohibitively expensive space. Italian steel producers in the Brescia area faced a similar set of disadvantages: high capital costs, high energy costs, and no local raw materials. Located in Northern Lombardy, t
20、hese privately owned companies faced staggering logistics costs due to their distance from southern ports and the inefficiencies of the state-owned Italian transportation system. The result: they pioneered technologically advanced minim ills that require only modest capital investment, use less ener
21、gy, employ scrap metal as the feedstock, are efficient at small scale, and permit producers to locate close to sources of scrap and end-use customers. In other words, they converted factor disadvantages into competitive advantage. Disadvantages can become advantages only under certain conditions. Fi
22、rst, they must send companies proper signals about circumstances that will spread to other nations, thereby equipping them to innovate in advance of foreign rivals. Switzerland, the nation that experienced the first labor shortages after World War II, is a case in point. Swiss companies responded to
23、 the disadvantage by upgrading labor productivity and seeking higher value, more sustainable market segments. Companies in most other parts of the world, where there were still ample workers, focused their attention on other issues, which resulted in slower upgrading. In 1887, Italian companies were
24、 world leaders in the production and export of ceramic tiles, a $10 billion industry. Italian producers concentrated in and around the small town of Sassuolo in the Emilia-Romagna region, accounted for about 30% of world production and almost 60% of world exports. The Italian trade surplus that year
25、 in ceramic tiles was about $1.4 billion. The development of the Italian ceramic tile industrys competitive advantage illustrates how the diamond of national advantage works. Sassuolos sustainable competitive advantage in ceramic tiles grew not from any static or historical advantage but from dynami
26、sm and change. Sophisticated and demanding local buyers, strong and unique distribution channels, and intense rivalry among local companies created constant pressure for innovation. Knowledge grew quickly from continuous experimentation and cumulative production experience. Private ownership of the
27、companies and loyalty to the community spawned intense commitment to invest in the industry. Tile producers benefited as well from a highly developed set of local machinery suppliers and other supporting industries. Producing materials, services, and infrastructure, the presence of world-class, Ital
28、ian related industries also reinforced Italian strength in tiles. Finally, the geographic concentration of the entire cluster supercharged the whole process. Today foreign companies compete against an entire subculture. The organic nature of this system represents the most sustamable advantage of Sa
29、ssuolos ceramic tile companies. Tile production in Sassuolo grew out of the earthenware and crockery industry, whose history traces back to the thirteenth century. Immediately after World War II, there were only a handful of ceramic tile manufacturers in and around Sassuolo, all serving the local ma
30、rket exclusively. Demand for ceramic tiles within Italy began to grow dramatically in the immediate postwar years, as the reconstruction of Italy triggered a boom in building materials of all kinds. Italian demand for ceramic tiles was particularly great due to the climate, local tastes, and buildin
31、g techniques. Because Sassuolo was in a relatively prosperous part of Italy, there were many who could combine the modest of capital and necessary organizational skills to start a tile company. In 1955, there were 14 Sassuolo area tile companies; by 1962, there were 102. The new tile companies benef
32、ited from a local pool of mechanically trained workers. The region around Sassuolo was home to Ferrari, Maserati, Lamborghini, and other technically sophisticated. Companies. As the tile industry began to grow and prosper, many engineers and skilled workers gravitated to the successful companies. In
33、itially, Italian tile producers were dependent on foreign sources of raw materials and production technology. In the 1950s, the principal raw materials used to make tiles were kaolin (white) clays. Since there was red- but no white-clay deposits near Sassuolo, Italian producers had to import the cla
34、ys from the United Kingdom. Tile making equipment was also imported in the 1950s and 1960s: kilns from Germany, America, and France; presses for forming tiles from Germany. Sassuolo tile makers had to import even simple glazing machines. Over time, the Italian tile producers learned how to modify im
35、ported equipment to fit local circumstances: red versus white clays, natural gas versus heavy oil. As process technicians from tile companies left to start their own equipment companies, a local machinery industry arose in Sassuolo. By 1970, Italian companies had emerged as world-class producers of
36、kilns and presses; the earlier situation had exactly reversed: they were exporting their red-clay equipment for foreigners to use with white clays. The relationship between Italian tile and equipment manufacturers was a mutually supporting one, made even more so by close proximity. In the mid- 1980s
37、, there were some 200 Italian equipment manufacturers: more than 60% were located in the Sassuolo area. The equipment manufacturers competed fiercely for local business, and tile manufacturers benefited from better prices and more advanced equipment than their foreign rivals. 译文 钻石体系打造国家优势 资料来源 :国家竞
38、争优势 作者： 迈克尔波特 是什么使 一个国家 在某种 国际竞争 激烈的产业中脱颖而出 ？ 是什么驱动他们不断进步，无止境的追求竞争优势？是什么使他们能够不断克服发展中的重大阻碍，不断变革和创新并获得成功？ 答案必须从每个国家都 拥有的四种要素 来讨论 ，他们组成一个完整的系统，构成了 国家的竞争优势 ，这就是“钻石模型” 。这些 要素 可能会增强本国企业创新能力从而提升竞争优势 ，也可能 会 造成企业发展停滞不前 。这四个要素如下： （ 1）生产要素 -一个国家在特定 的 产业 中 有关生产方面的 竞争 力。 （ 2）需求条件 -本国市场对该 产业所 生产的 产品或 提供的 服务的需求 大小
39、 。 （ 3）相关产业和支持产业 -为该 产业 提供服务支持的产业和其他相关 产业是否具有国际竞争力。 （ 4）企业的战略、结构和竞争对手 -企业在一个国家的 建立 基础、组织 形式和管理理念，以及国内竞争对手的状况 。 这些 要 素 会影响到决定公 司建立方式和成长以及竞争策略的环境。（请见图“国家竞争优势的决定因素”）“钻石模型”的每个组成部分以及钻石模型这个整体系统都影响到国家竞争优势：一个企业能不能获得资源；企业获得信息和机会 以及他们如何充分利用他们的资源和能力：企业家的目标，管理团队，企业员工；企业参与投资和创新的动力 。 当一个国家允许并支持企业 拥有专有资产和技术会有利于企业的
40、快速发展，原因是企业会为了获得竞争力而付出更大的努力。当一个国家能够提供更好的市场信息和产品需求状况，企业能够更容易获得竞争力。最后，当一个国家鼓励和支持企业参与竞争和创 新，那么企业既能获得竞争优势还能随着时间的推移不断提升竞争力。 要素条件： 根据 现有的 经济 学 理论 基础 ，生产 力与 劳动 力 ，土地，自然资源，资金，基础设施因素 都可以影响 贸易流量。一个国家将出口 那些他们具有竞争优势的产品 。这一学说，其起源可以追溯到 亚当 斯密 ， 大卫 李嘉图 时期的不完整的，并非完全准确的 古典经济学。 在一个拥有成熟技术和支柱产业的经济体中，一个国家不是依靠继承而是通过创造生产中最重
41、要的要素如拥有专业技术的工人或科技基础要素。此外，一个国家在某一特定 时期内 创造 ，升级和 在特定行业的配置 ，特别是重要产业 的比率和效率比股市对他的影响更大 。 在 生产中最重要的 影响 因素是那些 具有持久性 和 资金数额大 的专门化 的 投资。基本 要 素，如劳 动力 或本地原材料 的 来源池，并不构成知识密集产业的 竞争 优势。 企业可以 非常 轻松地 克服这方面的劣势， 通过全球性战略 的制定与执行 或通过技术 手段来实现 。相反， 在 传统的 发展观念里 ，只 需 要有一个 智力 一般的劳动 力 大军 ，通常只有高中或中专学历， 这些企业 在现代国际竞争 中 的 完全不具有 竞
42、争优势。 为了支持获得竞争优势，企业需要拥有高度专业化的技术人才，为软件公司建立提供风险投资的资金池。 这些要素更稀少，更不易被邻国所模仿和复制，并且这需要持久的投资来维系创造力。 各 个 行业的成功 者成功的原因在于 他们 能够 创造 更优的 要素。世界级的专门机构的竞争优势体现在他们 首先 创造出一个专业化的要素 ， 之后通过 对 不断升级 以 保持 它们的竞争优势。丹麦有两家医院 ， 集中精力 研究治疗糖尿病的胰岛素 并在世界上取得领先技术优势从而获得出口的竞争优势 。荷兰在种植，包装， 运输花卉方面具有领先世界 的技术从而获得出口竞争优势 。 那些并不明显的影响因素， 是在最基础要素中
43、有选择性挑选不利因素使企业在一个静态的竞争模型中的劣势不断创新和升级 从而在动态的竞争模型里转化为一项优势 。 当 企业拥 有充足的廉价 的 原材料或 拥有 丰富的 廉价的 劳动 力 ,公司可以简单地依靠这些优点 使效率优化 。但当企业面临着选择性的 竞争 劣势 ,像高昂的土地成本 ,劳动力 的匮乏 ,或缺乏本地的原 材 料 ,就 能推动企业进行创新和升级以适应 竞争。 我们经常听到 日本 在谈到本国竞争劣势时说的 一句话 :“我们是一个岛国 ,我们缺少 自然资源。” 这 是一种 普遍的 认识 ,但 这些缺陷 从另一方面也促使日本不断 创新 以提升竞争力 。 库存管理生产， 例如 ， 节省昂贵
44、的场地租金 。意大利钢铁生产商在布雷西亚地区面临着相似的缺点 :过高的生产 成本 ,高能源 使用 成本 ,缺乏本地 原料。位于北 Lombardy 的 这些私营公司由于南方港口和它们之间的距离 以及效率低下 的意大利运输系统 而 面临着惊人的物流成本。结果 ，他们创造出 了先进的技术 建立利用非金属为原料的小钢铁厂 ,只 需要很少的资本投入 ,使用 比过去 更少的能量 ,采用废金属为原料 ，并且允许生产商定位 废品 来源地 和终端客户。换句话说 ,他们 将要素缺点转化为了竞争优势 。 劣势转化为优势具有一定的特定条件。首先 ,他们必须给公司 提供 其他国家在这方面的准确信息 从而使 他们能够赶
45、在国外竞争者前进行创新。 例如， 瑞士这个国家正面临着第二 次世界大战以来最严重的缺乏经验丰富的劳动力的危机 ,就是一个很好的例子。瑞士企业对此做出回应 ,并通过产业升级，提高劳动生产率和寻求更高的价值 ,以可持续的眼光深化细分市场。企业在世界其他大部分还有丰富的劳动力的地方，由于他们将注意力集中在其他问题上 ,从而 导致升级缓慢。 1887 年 ,意大利 瓷砖的 生产和出口 企业是 世界 的 领 先者。拥有大约 100 亿美元的产业。聚集在意大利的生产商的小镇和周围的区域 ，小镇 Sassuolo 占有世界 30%的 生产 量 和 60%的世界出口 量 。意大利对外贸易顺差在那一年大约 有 14 亿美元 都依靠瓷砖出口，这 在现在听起来更像是个玩笑 。
