1、甘肃考试网 【 www.S www.BceR.cn 】 QQ 交流群:35167222 各类考试 历年试题答案免费直接 下载支持网站持续免费提供试题，收藏本网各分站网址请到【w ww.SteZ】。谢谢！- 1 -00830 现代语言学 复习资料教材购买： http:/ 绪论 1/ What is linguistics? 什么是语言学？ Linguistics is generally defined as the scientific study of language. It studies not any particular language, but languages in gen
2、eral. 2/ The scope of linguistics 语言学的研究范畴 The study of language as a whole is often called general linguistics. (普通语言学)The study of sounds, which are used in linguistic communication, is called phonetics. （语音学） The study of how sounds are put together and used in communication is called phonology.
3、（音系学） The study of the way in which morphemes are arranged to form words are called morphology. （形态学） The study of how morphemes and words are combined to form sentences is called syntax. （句法学） The study of meaning in language is called semantics. （语义学） The study of meaning in context of use is call
4、ed pragmatics. （语用学） The study of language with reference to society is called socio-linguistics. （社会语言学） The study of language with reference to the working of mind is called psycho-linguistics. （心理语言学） The study of applications (as the recovery of speech ability) is generally known as applied ling
5、uistics. （应用语言学） But in a narrow sense, applied linguistics refers to the application of linguistic principles and theories to language teaching and learning, especially the teaching of foreign and second language. Other related branches include anthropological linguistics, （人类语言学） neurological ling
6、uistics, （神经语言学） mathematical linguistics, （数字语言学）and computational linguistics. （计算机语言学） 3/ Some important distinctions in linguistics 语言学研究中的几对基本概念 Prescriptive and descriptive甘肃考试网 【 www.S www.BceR.cn 】 QQ 交流群:35167222 各类考试 历年试题答案免费直接 下载支持网站持续免费提供试题，收藏本网各分站网址请到【w ww.SteZ】。谢谢！- 2 - 描写与规定If a lingu
7、istic study describes and analyzes the language people actually use, it is said to be descriptive, if it aims to lay down rules to tell people what they should say and what they should not say, it is said to be prescriptive. Modern linguistics differs from traditional grammar. Traditional grammar is
8、 prescriptive while modern linguistics is descriptive. The task of linguists is supposed to describe the language people actually use, whether it is “correct” or not. Synchronic and diachronic 共时和历时The description of a language at some point in time is a synchronic study; the description of a langua
9、ge as it changes through time is a diachronic study. In modern linguistics, synchronic study is more important. Speech and writing 口头语与书面语Speech and writing are the two major media of communication. Modern linguistics regards the spoken form of language as primary, but not the written form. Reasons:
10、 1. Speech precedes writing; 2. There are still many languages that have only the spoken form; 3. In terms of function, the spoken language is used for a wider range of purposes than the written, and carries a larger load of communication than the written.Langue and parole prul 语言和言语 The Swiss lingu
11、ist F. de Saussure made the distinction between langue and parole early 20th century. Langue refers to the abstract linguistic system shared by all the members of a speech community, and parole refers to the realization of langue in actual use. Saussure made the distinction in order to single out on
12、e aspect of language for serious study. He believes what linguists should do is to abstract langue from parole, to discover the regularities governing the actual use of language and make them the subjects of study of linguistics. 语言能力和语言运用Competence and performanceProposed by American linguist N. Ch
13、omsky in the late 1950s. He defines competence as the ideal users knowledge of the rules of his language, and performance the actual realization of this knowledge in linguistic communication. He believes the task of the linguists is to discover and specify the language rules. 4/ What is language? 语言
14、的定义 Language is a system of arbitrary vocal symbols used for human communication. Sapir,Edward uses “ideas” “emotions” and “desires” in his definition. 甘肃考试网 【 www.S www.BceR.cn 】 QQ 交流群:35167222 各类考试 历年试题答案免费直接 下载支持网站持续免费提供试题，收藏本网各分站网址请到【w ww.SteZ】。谢谢！- 3 -Hall, like Sapir, treats language as a pur
15、ely human institution.Chomskys definition is quite different, it focus on the purely structural properties of languages and to suggest that these properties can be investigated from a mathematically precise point of view. 5/ Design features 语言的甄别性特征 Design features refer to the defining properties o
16、f human language that distinguish it from any animal system of communication. American linguist Charles Hockett specified twelve design features. 1) Arbitrariness 任意性（和约定俗成性） It means that there is no logical connection between meanings and sounds.For instance, there is no necessary relationship bet
17、ween the word dog and the animal it refers to. The fact that different sounds are used to refer to the same object in different languages and that the same sound may be used to refer to different objects is another good example. Although language is arbitrary by nature, it is not entirely arbitrary.
18、 Some words, such as the words created in the imitation of sounds by sounds are motivated in a certain degree. The arbitrary nature of language makes it possible for language to have an unlimited source of expressions. 2) Productivity 能产性Language is productive or creative in that it makes possible t
19、he construction and interpretation of an infinitely large number of sentences, including those that they have never said or heard before. 3) Duality 结构二重性It means that language is a system, which consists of two sets of structure, or two levels, one of sounds at the lower level and the other of mean
20、ings at the higher level. At the lower or the basic level, there is the structure of individual and meaningless sounds, which can be grouped into meaningful units at the higher level. This duality of structure or double articulation of language enables its users to talk about anything within their k
21、nowledge. 4) Displacement 语言的移位性（突破时空性）It means that language can be used to talk about what happened in the past, what is happening now, or what will happen in the future. Language can also be used to talk about our real word experiences or the experiences in our imaginary world. In other words, la
22、nguage can be used to refer to contexts removed from the immediate situations of the speaker. 5) Cultural transmission 文化传播性While we are born with the ability to acquire language, the details of any language are not genetically transmitted, but instead have to be taught and learned anew. *Chapter 2
23、Phonology 音系学 1.The phonic medium of language 语言的声音媒介Speech and writing are the two media used by natural languages as vehicles for communication.Of the two media of language, speech is more basic than writing. Speech is prior to writing. The writing system of any language is always “invented” by it
24、s users to record speech when the 甘肃考试网 【 www.S www.BceR.cn 】 QQ 交流群:35167222 各类考试 历年试题答案免费直接 下载支持网站持续免费提供试题，收藏本网各分站网址请到【w ww.SteZ】。谢谢！- 4 -need arises.For linguists, the study of sounds is of greater importance than that of writing.The limited ranges of sounds which are meaningful in human communic
25、ation and are of interest to linguistic studies are the phonic medium of language (语言的声音媒介) . The individual sounds within this range are the speech sounds （语音）. 2What is phonetics? 什么是语音学？Phonetics is defined as the study of the phonic medium of language；It is concerned with all the sounds that occ
26、ur in the worlds languages. 语音学研究的对象是语言的声音媒介，即人类语言中使用的全部语音。 three branches of phonetics Articulatory phonetics （发音语音学）, it studies the speech sounds from the speakers point of view. It studies how a speaker uses his speech organs to articulate the sounds. Auditory phonetics （听觉语音学） ，it studies the s
27、peech sounds from the hearers point of view. It studies how the sounds are perceived by he hearer. Acoustic phonetics（声学语音学） ，it studies the speech sounds by looking at the sound waves. It studies the physical means by which speech sounds are transmitted through the air from one person to another. a
28、io3. Organs of speech 发音器官 The pharyngeal cavity 咽腔 the throatThe oral cavity 口腔 the mouthThe nasal cavity 鼻腔 the nose 语音解剖图发音器官图4.Orthographic representation of speech sounds broad and narrow transcriptions 语音的书写形式宽式和窄式音标 IPA-International Phonetic Alphabet 国际音标There are two ways to transcribe spee
29、ch sounds. One is the transcription with letter-symbols (字母符号) only, called broad transcription (宽式音标 ). The other is the transcription with letter-symbols together with the diacritics (变音符号), called narrow transcription (窄式音标). p 音的比较 对 pit/spit 中 p 音的比较：pit 中的 p 是送气音，在窄式音标中标为上标，写作：phitspit 中的 p 是不
30、送气音，在宽式音标中不作标示，写作：spit l 音的比较甘肃考试网 【 www.S www.BceR.cn 】 QQ 交流群:35167222 各类考试 历年试题答案免费直接 下载支持网站持续免费提供试题，收藏本网各分站网址请到【w ww.SteZ】。谢谢！- 5 - 对 leaf/feel/build/health 中 l 音的比较：Leaf 中 l 在元音前，叫清晰音，在宽式音标中不作标示，写作：li:fFeel 中 l 出现在单词结尾，叫模糊音，在窄式音标中加变音符号Build 中 l 出现在另一个辅音前，也叫模糊音，在窄式音标中也加变音符号Health 中 l 出现在齿音前，受其影响
31、叫齿音l，在窄式音标中加变音符号II 5.Classification of English speech sounds 英语语音的分类ConsonantsVowelsa)Classification of English consonants 按发音方式分Stop or plosive 塞音或爆破音: p b t d k gFricative 擦音：f v s z W T s V hAffricate 塞擦音：tFdVLiquid 流音：l rNasal 鼻音：m n NGlide 滑音：w j a)Classification of English consonants 按发音部位分Bil
32、abial 双唇音：p b m wLabiodental 唇齿音：f vDental 齿音：W TAlveolar 齿龈音：t d s z n l rPalatal 硬腭音：VtFdViVelar 软腭音：k g NGlottal 声门音：h B) Classification of English vowels 按舌头在口中的位置分： Front vowel 前元音：i: i e A aCentral vowel 中元音：: QBack vowel 后元音：u: u R: R a: B) Classification of English vowels 按口形的大小分：Close vowel
33、 闭元音：i: i u: uSemi-close vowel 半闭元音：e :Open vowel 开元音：A aSemi-open vowel 半开元音： R: Q R a: B) Classification of English vowels 按唇形是否为圆分Unrounded vowel 不圆唇元音：i: i e A a : Q a:rounded vowel 圆唇元音：u: u R: R B) Classification of English vowels 按语音的长短分Long vowel 长元音i: :a: u: R:甘肃考试网 【 www.S www.BceR.cn 】 QQ
34、 交流群:35167222 各类考试 历年试题答案免费直接 下载支持网站持续免费提供试题，收藏本网各分站网址请到【w ww.SteZ】。谢谢！- 6 -Short vowel 短元音i e A a Q u R6.Phonology 音系学 Phonology and phonetics 音系学和语音学 Both phonology and phonetics are studies of speech sounds. Phonetics is of a general nature, it is interested in all the speech sounds used in all h
35、uman languages;Phonology is interested in the system of sounds of a particular language, it aims to discover how speech sounds in a language form patterns and how these sounds are used to convey meaning in linguistic communication. Thus these two are at once related and distinct branches of linguist
36、ic studies. 7.Phone, phoneme, and allophone 语音（音素） 、音位、音位变体 PhonePhone can be simply defined as the speech sounds we use when speaking a language. A phone is a phonetic unit or segment. It does not necessarily distinguish meaning. 语音是语言学研究的单位，是一个个具体的声音。语音是一个语音单位或一个切分成分，它并不一定能区分意义。 PhonologyPhonology
37、 is concerned with the speech sounds which distinguish meaning. The basic unit in phonology is called phoneme, it is a unit that is of distinctive value. But it is an abstract unit. A phoneme is not a sound, it is a collection of distinctive phonetic features. 音位是音系学研究的单位，是抽象的概念，每一个音位是一组语音特征的集合体，音位具
38、有区别意义的作用。一个音位在语音上被具体体现为一个特定的语音（音素） 。按照惯例，音位被置于两斜线之间，如/p/ /t/，而语音被置于方括号内，如p t. allophonesThe different phones which can represent a phoneme in different phonetic environments are called the allophones of that phoneme. 音位变体是一个音位在特定的语音环境里的具体体现，同一个音位在不同的语音环境里体现为不同的变体，也就是语音。 8.Phonemic contrast, compleme
39、ntary distribution, and minimal pair 音位对立、互补分布、最小对立对 Phonetically similar sounds might be related in two ways. They might form a contrast if they are two distinctive phonemes, or they do not form a contrast in meaning if they are allophones of the same phoneme. 相似的语音之间可能有两种关系。两个相似的语音如果是两个区别性音位，它们在意义
40、上形成对立，如果是同一音位的变体，在意思上不形成对立。 phonemic contrastThe former（ they are two distinctive phonemes ） is called phonemic contrast, they can occur in the same environments and they distinguish meaning. 音位对立是指不同音位之间的关系，它们可以出现在不同的语音组合的同一位置，产生意义差别，如 rope和 robe 中的/p/和/b/。 甘肃考试网 【 www.S www.BceR.cn 】 QQ 交流群:351672
41、22 各类考试 历年试题答案免费直接 下载支持网站持续免费提供试题，收藏本网各分站网址请到【w ww.SteZ】。谢谢！- 7 -complementary distributionThe latter（ they do not form a contrast in meaning ） is called complementary distribution; they are two allophones of the same phoneme. They only occur in different environments. 互补分布是指音位变体之间的关系，同一个音位的不同变体在语音组
42、合中永远不会出现在相同的位置上，它们没有区别意义的作用，如 top 中的送气的p和 stop 中不送气的p。 The wayA basic way to determine the phonemes of a language is to see if substituting one sound for another one results in a change of meaning. If it does, the two sounds then represent different phonemes. An easy way to do this is to find the mi
43、nimal pairs. 确定一种语言的音位的一个基本途径是，看如果用一个语音代替另一个是否会产生不同的意义。如果产生了，那么这两个语音就代表不同的音位。为此，一个简单的办法就是找出最小对立对。 a minimal pairWhen two different forms are identical in every way except for one sound segment which occurs in the same place in the strings, the two words are said to form a minimal pair. 最小对立对是指除了出现在同
44、一位置上的一个音之外其余都相同的两个语音组合，如pen和ben。 9.Some rules in phonology 几条音系规则 A) sequential rules 系列规则The rules that govern the combination of sounds in a particular language are called sequential rules. 在一种特定的语言中，语音的组合是受规则制约的，这些规则叫做系列规则。 重要的规则：I. 如果单词以l 或r 为首，其后的一个语音必定为元音，如 rude, last, leapII. 如果三个辅音同时出现在单词词首，
45、则：第一音位必定为/s/，第二音位必定是/p/t/k/，第三音位必定是/l/r/w/，如 strict, splendid, springIII. 塞擦音 tdv和咝音s z F V 后不能紧跟另一个咝音，如 teach 变复数为teachesti:tiz。IV. 制约音位模式的规则是随语言的不同而不同的，英语中适用，其它语言却不适用。 B) assimilation rules 同化规则The assimilation rule assimilates one sound to another by “copying” a feature of a sequential phoneme, t
46、hus making the two phones similar. 同化规则即通过“模仿”一个系列音位的一个特征使一个语音与另一个语音相似，从而使两个音素变得相似。 重要的规则：I. 元音后紧跟一个鼻音时，该元音要鼻音话。如 bean/ green 中的i:音。II. 在一个单词中，鼻音n所处的发音部位和紧随其后的辅音的发音部位变得一样。如 correct incorrect。III. 语音同化规则也体现在有关单词的拼写中。如 possible 的否定形式是 impossible，是因为n音同化成了m音。 C)deletion rules 省略规则The rule tells us when
47、 a sound is to be deleted although it is orthographically represented.甘肃考试网 【 www.S www.BceR.cn 】 QQ 交流群:35167222 各类考试 历年试题答案免费直接 下载支持网站持续免费提供试题，收藏本网各分站网址请到【w ww.SteZ】。谢谢！- 8 - 省略规则告诉我们什么时候一个语音尽管在拼写中存在，但在发音中却省略了。 重要的规则： 如g音出现在位于词尾的一个鼻辅音前时要省略。如 sign 中的g音不发音。而在加了后缀的 signature 中，g却要发音的。 10. Suprasegmental features- stress, tone, intonation 超切分特征：重音、声调和语调 Distinctive features can also be found
