1、1基于“态度”的司法决策基金项目 教育部新世纪优秀人才支持计划(NCET?13?0512) ; 国家社会科学基金项目(10CFX033) 作者简介1.陈林林,男,浙江大学光华法学院教授,博士生导师,主要从事法理学、司法制度与裁判方法研究; 2.杨桦,女,哈佛大学法学院硕士研究生,主要从事法学理论研究。 摘要 对司法行为的经验研究表明,疑难案件中的司法决策取决于法官的“态度” ,即法官所持的意识形态或政策偏好。态度理论归纳了主导疑案裁判的三个决策变量:案件事实、态度,以及事实与态度之间的相互作用。态度模型作为一种主导型司法决策理论,能解释、预测大多数美国最高法院和联邦上诉法院的判决。因为受态度测
2、量上的方法论局限,以及对制度性约束和法官角色认知的忽视,态度模型无法解释相当一部分案件的判决,也无法解决法官的意识形态漂移问题。在量化法官的投票行为时,态度理论实际将意识形态界定为法官的党派倾向。这种非此即彼的量化方式是粗糙的,它将法官描绘成“身披法袍的政客” ,这决定了它是一种片面的司法决策理论。 关键词 态度;司法决策;意识形态; 疑案裁判; 法官角色认知 Attitude?based Judicial Decision?making 2Chen Linlin1Yang Hua2 (1.Guanghua Law School, Zhejiang University, Hangzhou 3
3、10008,China; 2.Harvard Law School,Cambridge 02138, USA)Abstract: As a representative of the empirical theory of judicial decision?making, the attitudinal model will be helpful in understanding the open area in hard cases, as well as answering the questions like how judges act, why are they acting li
4、ke this, what will be the consequence of the action, and what intellectual instruments will be the most appropriate for the analysis of these issues. If we use the attitudinal model to predict the decisions of the Supreme Court of the United States, the accuracy is far above average. Among the vario
5、us interpretative theories of the decision?making of the U.S. Supreme Court, the attitudinal model is dominant at present The starting point of the attitude theory lies in the standpoint that judicial decision?making should not just depend on the application of the right legal rules. When deciding h
6、ard cases, the judge has a lot of discretion, and the exercises of discretion are directed by the judge?s own views on public policy and rights. Judicial decision?making depends 3on three variants: (1) The facts of a case. This is the common core of both the attitudinal model and the legal model. Ho
7、wever, the differences between the two models are that the legal model considers the facts in combination with legalism while the attitudinal model allows the Justices to vote by applying personal policy preference to the fact conditions. (2) Attitudes or policy preferences. They are the key in the
8、attitudinal model. (3) The interaction between facts and attitudes. According to the analysis of the voting results from the Supreme Court and the Federal Courts of Appeals, judges? policy preference and votes are positively correlated, that is, the Justice appointed by a Democratic president are li
9、kely to vote in favor of the liberal wing while the Justice appointed by a Republican president will tend to vote for the conservative wing. No matter what method is used to determine the judges? political tendency and no matter which rank the judge belongs to in the judicial hierarchy, this presume
10、d political tendency can always be found, and can explain to a large extent the variation of judges? votes on political issues The attitude theory explains that when deciding hard cases, the judges make their decision not only depending on 4facts but also on policy preferences. Accordingly, the trad
11、itional normative decision?making theory, or the so?called legal theory, is generally thought to be lacking in explanatory ability and unfalsifiable, and is thus not scientific enough. The legal model theory claims that judicial decision?making depends on the following variants: the facts of the cas
12、e, the Constitution and the statutes, the original intent of the framers of the Constitution, and the precedents. However, whether the judge in a judgment tends to be conservative or liberal, or whether he supports the plaintiff or the defendant, he can find support in the Constitution and the statu
13、tes, the original intent of the framers and numerous precedents. Therefore, the attitude theorists argue that the legal model would not provide adequate explanations for the final decision and that it is unfalsifiable. As with legal realism, the attitudinal model reveals the irrationality in judicia
14、l decision?making. Nonetheless, the attitudinal model emphasizes the practice of treating the irrational factors in a rational way and has constructed a judicial decision?making theory which can provide explanation and prediction. Yet the attitudinal model is not applicable to 5a massive number of c
15、ases. Besides, the phenomenon of ideological drift among Justices is also a point difficult to be explained by the attitudinal model. This is because the attitudinal model assumes that when the Justices make decisions, they submit to their policy preferences, and meanwhile the institution and rules
16、relevant to the judicial process also authorize them to vote according to their own preferences in the open areas produced in hard cases. Although this theoretical logic has its practical foundation, it also has blind spots, since it only pays attention to the authorization given by the institutions
17、 and rules to the Justices but ignores the restrictions that institutions and rules impose on the Justices in their decision making. In quantizing the voting behavior of the Justices, the attitudinal model defines the ideology as judges? partisanship. This yes?or?no quantification of the attitudinal
18、 model is crude because it portrays judges as politicians in robes, and is thus destined to be a partial judicial decision?making theory Key words: attitude; judicial decision?making; ideology; hard case adjudication; judge?s role perceptions 2014 年 3月陈林林杨桦: 基于“态度”的司法决策 2014年 3月浙6江大学学报(人文社会科学版)一、 司法
19、决策的研究路径 法官在遇有法律漏洞的疑难案件中如何得出一个权威的结论性判断,是司法决策理论的研究主题,也是数十年来位居国际法律理论前沿的一个论题。早期现实主义法律家认为,这一过程中的主导性因素是法官个人的直觉或洞见:法官从直觉判断出发去寻找一些论据或材料以证实这一判断或者在相互竞争的法规中进行选择其中以哈奇森和杰罗姆?弗兰克为代表。参见 J.C. Hutcheson, The Judgment Intuitive: The Function of the Hunch in Judicial Decision, Cornell Law Quarterly, Vol.14(1928), p.274
20、; J.Frank, Law and Modern Mind, New York: Tudor Publishing Co., 1936, p.120。 。直觉论并未厘清结论性判断的形成机制,反而导向了司法的非理性形象。为克服其缺陷,英美学者对判决形成过程中的“法律发现”和“结果证立”做了区分,试图以“结论的可证立性”来校验“判断的正确性” ,进而限制司法决策中的非理性和任意性因素相关研究请参见 R.A.Wasserstrom, The Judicial Decision: Toward a Theory of Legal Justification, Stanford: Stanford U
21、niversity Press, 1961, p.31; M.P. Golding, A Note on Discovery and Justification in Science and Law, in A.Aarnio D.N.MacCormick, Legal Reasoning and Legal Theory, Oxford: Clarendon Press, 1978, p.100。 。欧陆学者也认同“直觉”或“法感”的作用,但强调直觉并非是决策的依据,而是启动判断形成过程的因素。7法官通常运用“有节制的前理解” ,并结合“具体的法律政策考量”进行疑案决策。从形式上看,结论性判断
22、是法官在准用规范和个案事实之间不断进行比对、调适“初步结论”得来的,即所谓的“目光的往返穿梭”理论参见 F.Mller, Strukturierende Rechtslehre, Berlin: Duncker & Humblot Gmbh,1984, S.336,转引自德拉伦茨法学方法论 ,陈爱娥译, (北京)商务印书馆 2003年版,第 1314页。 。 已有围绕疑案决策进行的法律解释、法律推理和法律渊源研究,可谓学派纷呈、精致规范且胜意叠现。但法律界的相关研究却存在显著的偏向:一是总体上呈现为规范性的判断理论研究,即“法官应当如何判断” ,而缺乏经验的实证研究,即“法官实际上如何判断”
23、;二是不自觉地以单个法官的决策过程为分析对象,而无视现实的疑案判决往往是多个法官集体决策的结果,因此,也就无法完整或者贴切地描述实际的司法决策过程。有鉴于此,波斯纳在近著法官如何思考中宣称,要补白式地建构一种实证的审判决策理论,以助于更精确更全面地理解以下问题:在疑难案件带来的“开放地带” ,法官是如何决策的,为什么如此决策,决策的后果可能为何,以及哪些智识工具最适合分析这些问题 R.A. Posner, How Judges Think, Cambridge: Harvard University Press, 2008, p.15. 中译本参见美波斯纳法官如何思考 ,苏力译, (北京)北京
24、大学出版社 2009年版,第 13页。本文所引为英文本,同时参考了苏力先生的译文。需注意的是,此书整体并非严格意义上的“实证的经验研究” ,而是以“对已有经验研究的类型化综述”为导引,汇编了波斯纳近年来关于审判过程的一些论文。不过这无碍于此书成为司法决8策领域的一部重要著作。 。然而,若把眼界放宽到美国政治科学领域对司法行为的长期研究,就会发现波斯纳式的首开风气也不过是拾人牙慧作为一个例子,请比较波斯纳 2005年发表在哈佛法律评论上的论文一个政治性法院 (R.A. Posner, A Political Court, Harvard Law Review, Vol.119, No.1(200
25、5),pp.32102,即法官如何思考第十章) ,以及政治学家罗伯特?达尔 1957年在公法杂志上的论文民主政体中的决策:作为国家政策制定者的最高法院 (R.Dahl, Decision?Making in a Democracy: The Supreme Court as a National Policy?Maker, The Journal of Public Law, Vol.6, No.2(1957),pp.279295) 。 。自 20世纪中叶以来,伴随着政治学的行为主义革命,对美国最高法院在“开放地带”的司法行为进行经验研究,逐步成为政治科学内的一个分支学科“公法(public
26、law)研究”的一个主题。遗憾的是,虽然政治科学产出了大量有关“法官如何决策”的经验研究成果,在法学院内却几乎没有什么影响1213。 尽管未能获得法学界的重视或承认,但司法行为研究领域的代表性成果,尤其是态度模型理论和策略模型理论已取得显著的成就。其中,态度模型对美国最高法院的裁决的预测准确率远高于平均水平,目前在对美国最高法院决策的诸种解释理论中居于支配性地位。在其影响下,研究最高法院的学者很少怀疑大法官的个人意识形态偏好对案件决定的影响,甚至有学者仅凭大法官的意识形态来预测案件的裁判走势2261。态度模型也被输出到了其他司法决策领域,例如跨出最高法院,适用于上诉法院、巡回法院;跨出国界,适
27、用于其他国家最高法院等等。9这种成就在很大程度上归功于政治科学领域流行的经验实证方法。显然,对长期浸淫于规范性决策理论研究的法律学术而言,有必要从方法、内容和比较优势等方面入手,对代表实证司法决策理论的态度模型进行借鉴分析。 二、 态度模型的先声: 个人偏好、意识形态和法官决策 20 世纪初,关于司法决策的理论研究都秉承着相同的学术范式:形式主义3 。随着 20世纪上半期美国法律现实主义的兴起,人们逐渐认识到司法过程通常并不仅仅指将既定的权威规则适用于具体的实际情况。相反,案子总是带着许多潜在的适用事实和硬性程式,让法官面临选择。这就使得(事实上是要求)司法决策不能仅仅依赖于对“正确的”法律规
28、则的适用4250。围绕司法决策研究的“去形式主义”运动表明,在疑难案件的审判中,法官拥有相当大的自由裁量权,并且裁量权的行使受到法官在公共政策和权力方面的个人观念的引导51635。但作为一种批判性的法律现实主义,该理论对影响司法决策的变量分析局限于笼统的经验、观念、直觉、洞见和情绪等因素例如“法律取决于法官早餐吃了些什么”这样的宣称,参见 R.Dworkin, Law?s Empire, Harvard: Harvard University Press, 1986, p.36。 ,而缺少细致、系统的实证分析。 1948 年,芝加哥大学政治学者普利齐特(C. Herman Pritchett)
29、提交的一份关于最高法院的社会科学研究报告彻底革新了研究司法决策的思考方式。普利齐特选择了 19371947 年间最高法院未达成全体一致意见的判决,运用计量的方法系统考察了反对意见、协同意见、投票集团10以及意识形态分布。他根据大法官的个人行为与表决来测量大法官的政策偏好,然后在微观层面建立起法官政策偏好与案件表决之间的相关性。值得注意的是,普利齐特虽然假设法官行为的主要驱动力是个人政策偏好,但还是指出个人偏好会受到法官对自身角色定位的影响。因此,他在法官政策偏好和案件表决之间加入了一项中间变量,即“法官角色认知”参见 C.H.Pritchett, The Roosevelt Court: A
30、Study in Judicial Politics and Values, 19371947, New York: Macmillan, 1948,转引自田雷法官如何决策司法研究的文献综述 ,见陈金钊、谢晖主编法律方法第 8卷, (济南)山东人民出版社 2009年版,第216页。 。普利齐特的研究曾被认为是“宪法和政治学领域的所有出版物中最重要和最有影响力的作品整整一代政治学者在阅读后都被迫去修正关于最高法院的基本研究方向”参见 G.Schubert, The Judicial Mind: The Attitudes and Ideologies of Supreme Court Justi
31、ce,19461963, Evanston: Northwestern University Press,1965, p.6,转引自 T.E.George, Developing a Positive Theory of Decision?Making on U.S. Courts of Appeals, Ohio State Law Journal, Vol.58, No.5(1998), p.1635。 。因此,虽然他并没有提出一个关于最高法院司法决策的解释模型,但为司法行为的研究转向奠定了基础。 沿着普利齐特开辟的道路,希伯特(Glendon Schubert)进一步综合行为科学和认知心理学的研究方法与成果去撩开司法决策过程的面纱。1965年,希伯特率先在微观层面上提出了一个基于“意识形态”的司法