1、THEGLOBALTEXTILEANDCLOTHINGINDUSTRYPOSTTHEAGREEMENTONTEXTILESANDCLOTHINGIINTRODUCTIONAFTERMORETHANFORTYYEARSOFIMPORTQUOTAS,THETEXTILEANDCLOTHINGSECTORWILLBECOMESUBJECTTOTHEGENERALRULESOFTHEGENERALAGREEMENTONTARIFFSANDTRADEFROM1JANUARY,2005LIBERALIZATIONHASBEENCONTROVERSIALBECAUSEBOTHTEXTILESANDCLOTH
2、INGCONTRIBUTETOEMPLOYMENTINDEVELOPEDCOUNTRIES,PARTICULARLYINREGIONSWHEREALTERNATIVEJOBSMAYBEDIFFICULTTOFINDTEXTILESANDCLOTHINGAREALSOAMONGTHESECTORSWHEREDEVELOPINGCOUNTRIESHAVETHEMOSTTOGAINFROMMULTILATERALTRADELIBERALIZATIONTHEOBJECTIVEOFTHISPAPERISTOASSESSTHELIKELYIMPACTOFLIBERALIZATION,TAKINGINTOA
3、CCOUNTRECENTTECHNOLOGICALANDMANAGERIALDEVELOPMENTSINTHESECTOR,ANDFOCUSINGONRECENTDEVELOPMENTSINSUPPLYCHAINMANAGEMENTINTHECLOTHINGANDTEXTILESSECTORSTHECLOTHINGINDUSTRYISLABOURINTENSIVEANDITOFFERSENTRYLEVELJOBSFORUNSKILLEDLABOURINDEVELOPEDASWELLASDEVELOPINGCOUNTRIESTHESETECHNOLOGICALFEATURESOFTHEINDUS
4、TRYHAVEMADEITSUITABLEASTHEFIRSTRUNGONTHEINDUSTRIALIZATIONLADDERINPOORCOUNTRIES,SOMEOFWHICHHAVEEXPERIENCEDAVERYHIGHOUTPUTGROWTHRATEINTHESECTOREGBANGLADESH,SRILANKA,VIETNAMANDMAURITIUS3THESECHARACTERISTICS,HOWEVER,HAVEALSOMADEITAFOOTLOOSEINDUSTRYTHATISABLETOADJUSTTOCHANGINGMARKETCONDITIONSQUICKLYIITHE
5、STRUCTUREOFTHETEXTILEANDCLOTHINGSECTORTHECLOTHINGSECTORISBOTHALABOURINTENSIVE,LOWWAGEINDUSTRYANDADYNAMIC,INNOVATIVESECTOR,DEPENDINGONWHICHMARKETSEGMENTSONEFOCUSESUPONINTHEHIGHQUALITYFASHIONMARKET,THEINDUSTRYISCHARACTERIZEDBYMODERNTECHNOLOGY,RELATIVELYWELLPAIDWORKERSANDDESIGNERSANDAHIGHDEGREEOFFLEXIB
6、ILITYTHECOMPETITIVEADVANTAGEOFFIRMSINTHISMARKETSEGMENTISRELATEDTOTHEABILITYTOPRODUCEDESIGNSTHATCAPTURETASTESANDPREFERENCES,ANDEVENBETTERINFLUENCESUCHTASTESANDPREFERENCESINADDITIONTOCOSTEFFECTIVENESSTHECOREFUNCTIONSOFFIRMSSERVICINGTHISMARKETSEGMENTARELARGELYLOCATEDINDEVELOPEDCOUNTRIESANDOFTENINLIMITE
7、DGEOGRAPHICALAREASORCLUSTERSWITHINTHESECOUNTRIESTHEEMILIAROMAGNADISTRICTINTHESOCALLEDTHIRDITALYISONEOFTHEMOSTPROMINENTANDPROSPEROUSTEXTILEANDCLOTHINGCLUSTERSINTHEWORLD,WHILEITALYISTHESECONDLARGESTEXPORTEROFBOTHTEXTILESANDCLOTHINGWHENINTRAEUTRADEISINCLUDEDHOWEVER,THISMARKETSEGMENTHASALSOSEENASIGNIFIC
8、ANTAMOUNTOFRELOCATIONOFPRODUCTIONANDOUTSOURCINGTOLOWERCOSTPRODUCERS,OFTENINGEOGRAPHICALPROXIMITYTOTHEMAJORMARKETNAVARETTIETAL,2001THEOTHERMAJORMARKETSEGMENTISMASSPRODUCTIONOFLOWERQUALITYAND/ORSTANDARDPRODUCTSSUCHASTSHIRTS,UNIFORMS,WHITEUNDERWEARETCMANUFACTURERSFORTHISMARKETSEGMENTARELARGELYFOUNDINDE
9、VELOPINGCOUNTRIES,OFTENINEXPORTPROCESSINGZONESAND/ORUNDERSOCALLEDOUTWARDPROCESSINGAGREEMENTSWITHMAJORIMPORTERS6THEYEMPLOYMAINLYFEMALEWORKERSSEMISKILLEDANDUNSKILLEDANDOUTSOURCINGTOHOUSEHOLDPRODUCTIONISQUITECOMMONINTHELOWENDOFTHEMARKETINTHELOWTOMIDDLEPRICEDMARKET,THEROLEOFTHERETAILERHASBECOMEINCREASIN
10、GLYPROMINENTINTHEORGANIZATIONOFTHESUPPLYCHAINTHERETAILMARKETHASBECOMEMORECONCENTRATED,LEAVINGMOREMARKETPOWERTOMULTINATIONALRETAILERSTHESEHAVEMARKETPOWERNOTONLYINTHECONSUMERMARKET,BUTPERHAPSMOREIMPORTANTLYTHEYHAVECONSIDERABLEBUYINGPOWERINADDITION,HIGHVOLUMEDISCOUNTCHAINSHAVEDEVELOPEDTHEIROWNBRANDSAND
11、SOURCETHEIRCLOTHINGDIRECTLYFROMTHESUPPLIERS,WHETHERFOREIGNORLOCALACCORDINGTOGEREFFI2001,RETAILERSACCOUNTEDFORHALFOFTOTALGARMENTIMPORTSINTHEEUROPEANUNIONINTHEMID1990S,ATRENDTHATPROBABLYHASCONTINUEDDURINGTHESECONDHALFOFTHE1990SCONSUMERSSPENDASMALLERSHAREOFTHEIRINCOMEONCLOTHINGTHANINTHEPAST,ALTHOUGHCON
12、SUMERSSHOPMOREFREQUENTLYANDBUYALARGERNUMBEROFCLOTHINGITEMSTHANBEFORETHERESPONSEFROMPRODUCERSTOTHECHALLENGEOFSLOWGROWTHINTOTALDEMANDISTOBUILDONCONSUMERSLOVEOFVARIETYANDPROVIDENEWFASHIONSANDABROADVARIETYOFSIZES,COLOURS,DESIGNSETCATAFREQUENTRATETHETEXTILEINDUSTRYISUSUALLYMORECAPITALINTENSIVETHANTHECLOT
13、HINGINDUSTRYANDITISHIGHLYAUTOMATED,PARTICULARLYINDEVELOPEDCOUNTRIESITCONSISTSOFSPINNING,WEAVINGANDFINISHING,ANDTHETHREEFUNCTIONSAREOFTENUNDERTAKENININTEGRATEDPLANTSTRADITIONALLY,ANDINMANYMARKETS,ITISSTILLTHECASETHATLEADTIMEINTHETEXTILESECTORISQUITELONGANDTHECAPITALINTENSITYOFTHEINDUSTRYRESULTSINRELA
14、TIVELYLARGEMINIMUMORDERSTHETEXTILEINDUSTRYISTHEREFORELESSFLEXIBLEINTERMSOFADJUSTINGTOCONSUMERTASTESDURINGASEASONTHANTHECLOTHINGANDRETAILSECTORSTHETEXTILESECTORISTHUSINMANYWAYSTHEBOTTLENECKINTHESUPPLYCHAINIIITRADEPATTERNSINTEXTILESANDCLOTHINGTHESECONDHALFOFTHE1990SSAWCHANGESINBOTHTHEEUANDTHEUNITEDSTA
15、TESINRELATIONTOTHESOURCINGOFTEXTILEANDCLOTHINGIMPORTS,REFLECTINGREGIONALTRADEAGREEMENTSANDSTRUCTURALCHANGESINTHETEXTILEANDCLOTHINGSECTORSSTARTINGWITHTHEUNITEDSTATES,FIGURES3AND4DEPICTTHESOURCESOFIMPORTSOFTEXTILESANDCLOTHINGRESPECTIVELYIN1995AND2002BOTHFIGURESSHOWTHE10LARGESTSUPPLIERSTOTHEUNITEDSTATE
16、S,WHILEALLOTHERSUPPLIERSAREINCLUDEDINTHE“OTHER“CATEGORYGROWTHINIMPORTSOFTEXTILESTOTHEUNITEDSTATESDURINGTHEPERIOD1995TO2002WASABOUT9PERCENTANNUALLYINNOMINALDOLLARTERMSWENOTICETHESHARPINCREASEINMEXICOSMARKETSHARE,PROBABLYREFLECTINGTHEIMPACTOFNAFTATHEREGIONALIZATIONOFTHEMARKETISFURTHERINDICATEDBYTHEENT
17、RYOFHONDURASAMONGTHE10LARGESTSUPPLIERS,WHILEJAPANHASFALLENOUTOFTHETOP10LISTWEALSONOTICETHATLOWINCOMECOUNTRIESINASIASUCHASINDIAANDPAKISTANHAVECLIMBEDINTHERANKINGATTHEEXPENSEOFHIGHERINCOMEASIANSUPPLIERSSUCHASCHINESETAIPEIANDHONGKONG,CHINAALTHOUGHINDIASMARKETSHAREHASREMAINEDCONSTANTALSOCHINASMARKETSHAR
18、EHASBEENFAIRLYSTABLEDURINGTHEPERIOD19952002THEREGIONALDIMENSIONISALSOCLEARWHENWETAKEACLOSERLOOKATTHEMAJORASIANTEXTILEANDCLOTHINGEXPORTERSSOURCINGOFIMPORTSCHINASOURCEDMORETHAN80PERCENTOFITSTEXTILESIMPORTSFROMJAPAN,HONGKONG,CHINACHINESETAIPEIANDTHEREPUBLICOFKOREA,BUTASSUGGESTEDBYTABLE1ABOVE,CHINASOURC
19、EDMOSTOFITSINPUTSFORTHECLOTHINGINDUSTRYDOMESTICALLYHONGKONG,CHINAHADASIMILARPATTERNASCHINA,WITHMORETHAN80PERCENTOFTOTALTEXTILESIMPORTSCOMINGFROMCHINA,JAPAN,CHINESETAIPEIANDTHEREPUBLICOFKOREA,WITHCHINAALONEACCOUNTINGFORMORETHAN60PERCENTALSO,THEPHILIPPINES,THAILANDANDINDONESIASOURCEDBETWEEN75AND82PERC
20、ENTOFTHEIRTEXTILEIMPORTSFROMTHEFIVELARGEASIANTEXTILEEXPORTERSCHINAHONGKONG,CHINACHINESETAIPEITHEREPUBLICOFKOREAANDJAPANINDIAIMPORTSVERYLITTLETEXTILES,WITHANIMPORTVALUEOFLESSTHAN1BILLIONIN2002,ANDMORETHANHALFCAMEFROMOTHERASIANCOUNTRIESANDTERRITORIESBANGLADESH,BYCONTRAST,IMPORTEDABOUT84PERCENTOFITSTEX
21、TILESFROMTHEFIVEBIGASIANCOUNTRIESANDTERRITORIES,BUTREPLACINGJAPANWITHINDIACOMPARINGDEVELOPMENTSINMARKETSHARESINTHEUNITEDSTATESANDTHEEUROPEANUNIONANDDEVELOPMENTSINEMPLOYMENTINTHETEXTILEANDCLOTHINGSECTORS,ITAPPEARSTOBEAHIGHCORRELATIONBETWEENCHANGESINMARKETSHARESANDCHANGESINEMPLOYMENTINPARTICULAR,THEUP
22、PERMIDDLEINCOMECOUNTRIESINASIAHAVELOSTMARKETSHARESANDJOBSINTEXTILEANDCLOTHINGSECTOR,PROBABLYASARESULTOFCHANGINGTRADEPOLICIESANDCHANGINGCOMPARATIVEADVANTAGEIVCONCLUSIONMOSTANALYSESOFTHEIMPACTOFTHEPHASINGOUTOFTHEATCCONCLUDETHATCHINAANDINDIAWILLCOMETODOMINATEWORLDTRADEINTEXTILESANDCLOTHING,WITHPOSTATCM
23、ARKETSHARESFORCHINAALONEESTIMATEDAT50PERCENTORMORETHISSTUDYREPLICATESTHOSEPREDICTIONSUSINGAMODELWHICHISCOMMONLYUSEDINSUCHSTUDIESTHEGTAPMODELITISARGUED,HOWEVER,THATTHESEESTIMATESONLYTELLPARTOFTHESTORY,ASTHEYARETOTALLYDRIVENBYCHANGESINRELATIVEPRICESANDCOSTCOMPETITIVENESSTHISPAPERHASFOCUSEDONOTHERFACTO
24、RSTHATAREALSOIMPORTANTANDWHICHHAVEGENERALLYNOTBEENTAKENINTOACCOUNTINTHEPREVIOUSLITERATURETHEMAINCONTRIBUTIONOFTHISSTUDYISTHUSTOTAKEINTOACCOUNTRECENTDEVELOPMENTSINTHEORGANIZATIONOFTHETEXTILESANDCLOTHINGSECTOR,WHEREVERTICALSPECIALIZATIONISANIMPORTANTFEATUREVERTICALSPECIALIZATIONIMPLIESTHATTHEINPUTSEMB
25、ODIEDINTHEFINALPRODUCTCROSSBORDERSSEVERALTIMESANDSUCHTRADEISVERYSENSITIVETOTHETARIFFLEVELHENCETHEOUTCOMEOFTHEPHASINGOUTOFQUOTASWILLDEPENDMUCHMOREONTHEPREVAILINGTARIFFRATESANDTHEPREFERENCEMARGINSOFCOUNTRIESRECEIVINGSUCHPREFERENCESTHANISCAPTUREDBYTHECONVENTIONALESTIMATESSECOND,TIMETOMARKETISIMPORTANTA
26、NDINCREASINGLYSO,PARTICULARLYINTHEFASHIONCLOTHINGSECTORTHEREFORE,COUNTRIESCLOSETOTHEMAJORMARKETSARELIKELYTOBELESSAFFECTEDBYCOMPETITIONFROMINDIAANDCHINATHANHASBEENANTICIPATEDINPREVIOUSSTUDIESMEXICO,THECARIBBEAN,EASTERNEUROPEANDNORTHAFRICAARETHEREFORELIKELYTOREMAINIMPORTANTEXPORTERSTOTHEUSANDEURESPECT
27、IVELY,ANDPOSSIBLYMAINTAINTHEIRMARKETSHARESTHISISEVENMORELIKELYGIVENTHEPREFERENTIALACCESSTHEYHAVETOTHEMARKETSTHROUGHREGIONALTRADEAGREEMENTSTHUS,ITISSHOWNINTHEPAPERTHATHAVINGACOMMONBORDERWITHTHEIMPORTERANDFACINGLOWORZEROTARIFFSHAVEASUBSTANTIALIMPACTONBILATERALTRADETHECOUNTRIESTHATAREMOSTLIKELYTOLOSEMA
28、RKETSHARESARETHOSELOCATEDFARFROMTHEMAJORMARKETSANDWHICHHAVEHADEITHERTARIFFANDQUOTAFREEACCESSTOTHEUNITEDSTATESANDEUMARKETS,ORWHICHHAVEHADNONBINDINGQUOTASTHESECOUNTRIESWILLUNDOUBTEDLYFACEADJUSTMENTCHALLENGESALSOLOCALPRODUCERSINEU,THEUNITEDSTATESANDCANADAARELIKELYTOLOSEMARKETSHARESTHESEPRODUCERSHAVEENJ
29、OYEDMORETHAN40YEARSOF“TEMPORARY“PROTECTION,BUTNEVERTHELESSFACEALONGTERMSTRUCTURALDECLINETHUS,ADJUSTMENTSCOSTSDUETOCHANGINGCOMPARATIVEADVANTAGEINTHETEXTILEANDCLOTHINGSECTORARENOTNEW,ANDITISNOTCONFINEDTOTHEATCCOUNTRIES,ASTHEEXPERIENCEOFSOMEOFTHEMAJORASIANEXPORTERSUCHASHONGKONG,CHINACHINESETAIPEIANDTHE
30、REPUBLICOFKOREASHOWSTOCONCLUDE,THEREISNODOUBTTHATBOTHCHINAANDINDIAWILLGAINMARKETSHARESINTHEEUROPEANUNION,THEUNITEDSTATESANDCANADATOASIGNIFICANTEXTENT,BUTTHEEXPECTEDSURGEINMARKETSHAREMAYBELESSTHANANTICIPATED,ASPROXIMITYTOMAJORMARKETSASSUMESINCREASINGECONOMICSIGNIFICANCEANDTARIFFSAREINCREASINGLYRESTRA
31、ININGTRADEDUETOTHEFACTTHATPRODUCTSCROSSBORDERSSEVERALTIMES外文题目THEGLOBALTEXTILEANDCLOTHINGINDUSTRYPOSTTHEAGREEMTONTEXTILESANDCLOTHING出处WORLDTRADEORGANIZATIONGENEVA,SWITZERLAND作者HILDEGUNKYVIKNORDASL译文全球纺织及制衣业职位的纺织品和服装协定一简介在进口配额后,从2005年1月1日起,四十多年的纺织和服装部门将成为受制于关税和贸易总协定。自由化一直存在争议,因为纺织品和服装有助于发达国家的就业,特别是在转
32、业的地区,可能很难找到。从多边贸易自由化,纺织品和服装部门之间发展中国家获益最多。本文的目的是评估自由化可能产生的影响,同时考虑到最近的技术和管理部门的发展,以及供应链管理的最新发展在服装和纺织品行业为重点。服装行业是劳动密集型的。贫穷国家在工业化阶梯,第一个合适的入门的职位,其中的一些经历了在该领域(如孟加拉国,斯里兰卡,越南和毛里求斯)非常高的产量增长率03的特点。但是,也使它成为可自由流动的行业,能够适应迅速变化的市场条件。二纺织和服装部门的结构服装行业是劳动密集型,低工资的行业和一个动态的创新的行业,这取决于侧重于细分市场。在高品质的时装市场,行业的特点是现代技术,相对高薪工人,设计师
33、具有高度的灵活性。该公司在这个细分市场的竞争优势是有关设计,制造能力,捕捉的口味和喜好,甚至更好,这样的口味和偏好的影响,除了成本效益。这个市场提供服务的公司的核心职能主要是在发达国家,往往在有限的地区或在这些国家的集群。在所谓的艾米利亚罗马涅大区在意大利是最突出的和繁荣的世界纺织品和服装集群之一,而意大利是第二大纺织品和服装出口都在欧盟内部贸易是包括在内。然而,这个市场也出现了搬迁的生产和外包到低成本的大量生产,通常在地理上接近主要市场(NAVARETTI等2001)。其他主要市场是低质量如T恤,制服,白色内衣等为这个市场在很大程度上是在发展中国家里大规模生产制造标准的产品,往往在出口加工区
34、根据所谓的与外发加工协议主要发展。主要是他们雇用女工、半熟练和非熟练工人、家庭生产的外包,是相当的低端市场。在低到中等价位的市场,零售商的作用已越来越多地在供应链组织突出。零售市场已变得更加集中,留出更多的市场力量来跨国零售商。这些市场力量不仅在消费市场,但也许更重要的是他们拥有相当的购买力。此外,大批量折扣连锁店已发展自己的品牌和来源,直接从他们的服装供应商,无论是外国或本地的。据GEREFFI(2001),零售商占了欧盟服装总额在1990年代中期进口的一半,很可能有一个在20世纪90年代后半的持续趋势。虽然消费者购物更加频繁,比以前买件衣服更大的数字。从生产者反应在总需求增长缓慢的挑战是建
35、立在消费者的各种爱和提供新的时装及各种尺寸,颜色,设计等经常在各种各样。纺织业是高度自动化。在发达国家尤其如此。它包括纺纱,织造及后整理,以及三种功能于一体的植物往往进行。传统上,而且在许多市场,它目前仍然是这样,在纺织部门的筹备时间很长,比较大的订单的最低资本密集产业的结果。因此,纺织工业在调整顾客的口味上灵活性,在服装和零售行业的季节。纺织行业在许多方面都是这样。三在纺织品和服装贸易格局20世纪90年代下半年在欧盟和美国发生变化的纺织品和服装进口采购,反映区域贸易协定和在纺织和服装行业的结构性变化。在美国,开始描绘的纺织品和服装进口分别于1995年和2002年的来源。这两个数字显示,10至
36、美国最大的供应商,而所有其他供应商都在“其他”类别。增长率在1995年期间向美国纺织品进口至2002年每年约百分之9名义美元计算。我们注意到在墨西哥的市场份额急剧上升,可能反映了北美自由贸易协定的影响。市场的区域化是进一步指出洪都拉斯最大的供应商中的10项,而日本却未能达到前10名了。我们也注意到,在亚洲低收入国家,如印度和巴基斯坦都在上升中的排名,如中国台北和香港,中国收入较高的亚洲供应商的费用,虽然印度的市场份额一直保持不变。另外中国的市场份额一直相当稳定,在19952002年期间。区域方面也很清楚,当我们需要在亚洲主要纺织品和服装出口国,进口采购,仔细看看。中国采购占其纺织品来自日本,香
37、港,中国进口额超过80,中华台北和韩国,中国建议的来源为国内服装行业的投入最多。香港,中国已为中国类似的模式,与超过总纺织品来自中国,日本,中国台北和韩国的进口额来中国就占80例,超过百分之六十。此外,菲律宾,泰国和印度尼西亚的纺织品采购占进口额从五个大型亚洲纺织品出口国(中国,香港,中国,中华台北,韩国和日本)之间的75和82。印度纺织品进口很少,与2002年减少10亿美元进口额,超过一半来自亚洲其他国家和地区来了。孟加拉国,与此相反,进口占约84来自五大亚洲国家和地区的纺织品分,但与印度取代日本。比较在美国和欧洲联盟以及在纺织和服装行业的就业发展,市场份额的发展,它似乎是介于市场份额的变化
38、和就业变化的高相关性。特别是,上中等收入国家在亚洲已经失去了在纺织和服装行业的市场份额和就业机会,可能是因为贸易政策的变化和不断变化的比较优势的结果。四结论对影响配额逐步取消了大多数分析得出结论,中国和印度将逐渐主导世界纺织品和服装贸易,为中国独自在百分之50以上的估计与后配额的市场份额。本研究重复使用这些预测也就是通常在(GTAP模型),这种研究使用的模型。有人认为,然而,这些估计数字只说明了故事的一部分,因为它们是完全由相对价格和成本竞争力的变化带动。本文的重点,同时也是重要的,而一般都没有被考虑到在过去的文献中的其他因素。本研究的主要贡献是这样考虑到最近的事态发展采取的纺织品和服装部门,
39、垂直专业化分工的一个重要特点组织。垂直专业化意味着,在最终产品多次跨越边界贸易等所体现的投入是非常敏感的关税水平。因此,逐步取消配额的结果将取决于许多关于当时的关税税率和接受这种优惠国家的优惠幅度多是由传统的估计抓获。上市时间是重要的,越来越多的话,特别是在时装界。因此,各国靠近主要市场可能会较少受到来自印度和中国的竞争比以往的研究已在预期的影响。墨西哥,加勒比,东欧和北非因此有可能继续对美国和欧盟出口分别为重要,并有可能维持其市场份额。这是更可能给予优惠的市场准入,通过区域贸易协定他们。因此,它是显示在纸张经与进口商面临的共同边界,低或零关税对双边贸易产生重大影响。最有可能失去市场份额的主要市场距离远的人士,其中有任何关税和配额限制自由进入美国和欧盟市场,或有过不具约束力的配额。这些国家无疑将面临调整的挑战。在欧盟,美国和加拿大的当地生产商也可能会失去市场份额。这些生产者有着超过40年“临时”保护多年,但仍然面临着长期的结构性衰退。因此,调整成本,由于不断变化的纺织和服装部门的比较优势是不是新的,它并不局限于作为国家配额等专业的香港,总括来说,这是毫无疑问,无论中国和印度将获得在欧盟,美国和加拿大的市场份额在很大程度上,但预期的市场份额激增可能低于预期的接近主要市场,假定越来越多的经济意义和关税的贸易限制越来越多。