1、 外文翻译 原文 International trade regulation and sustainable development: An outlook Material Source: http:/ Author: Karl Steininger International Trade Regulation and Sustainable Development: An Outlook Sustainable development at both the national and the global level is increasingly acknowledged to be
2、dependent upon the international trade system. The WTO Agreements and the continuing discussion in the W-IO Committee on Trade and Environment are therefore examined here in the light of principles put forward by the International Institute for Sustainable Development. The current shortcomings in th
3、e WTO are analyzed and some possible cornerstones for future WTO development indicated. Even though the interlink age between trade and sustainable development is obvious and important, it was acknowledged as such only at the beginning of the 1990s by the world community. Yet it is far from having b
4、een effectively addressed, as is indicated by the Uruguay Round Final Act, signed in April 1994. In the process of the Uruguay Round negotiations, in the autumn of 1991 the GAFF Working Group on Environmental Measures and International Trade (EMIT) convened for the first time since its initiation in
5、 1971. Together with the Uruguay Round Final Act, the Decision on Trade and Environment was signed in 1994, stating the work programmer for a Committee on Trade and Environment (CTE). Acknowledging its importance, initially a Sub-Committee of the WTO Preparatory Committee was formed which held five
6、meetings from May through November 1994, before the Agreement establishing the WTO went into force on January 1st, 1995, when the Committee on Trade and Environment was officially established. The CTE then convened for eight meetings up to April 1996 in preparation for the report to the first WTO Mi
7、nisterial Conference in December 1996. This conference will review the mandate and tasks of the Committee for its future work. For the further future many expect the next round of trade negotiations to be a “green“ one? In this paper we will first take a step back and consider general principles for
8、 the area of trade and sustainable development looking, in particular, at a set of principles which has been developed at the International Institute for Sustainable Development, Canada. We will then use the perspective of these principles to evaluate the current trade framework and current trade an
9、d environment discussions to highlight (a) where the options for sustainable development already are as well as (b) where the most Crucial deficiencies are to be addressed. On the basis of the three key assumptions “need for poverty alleviation,“ “importance of environmental policies“ and that “barr
10、iers to trade can create impediments to sustainable development,“ the International Institute for Sustainable Development (IISD) put forward the following principles to reconcile trade and sustainable development: 2 Efficiency and Cost Internalization. Efficient resource use is both at the heart of
11、development efforts to combat poverty and reduces the drain on scarce natural resources. Efficient resource use requires that the prices paid accurately reflect full costs. To date, prices often are distorted, be it by unpaid environmental costs and/or trade barriers. Equity. While inequity and pove
12、rty contribute significantly to environmental degradation, particularly in developing countries, trade liberalization, with reduced tariff escalations and investment, is seen as a means of supplying additional resources to developing countries. Environmental Integrity. As many aspects of the environ
13、ment have values which cannot be adequately captured by methods of cost internalization (e.g. due to irreversibilitys) special conservation measures might be necessary in exception to normal trade rules. They should be enacted within the context of internationally agreed upon criteria. Subsidiary. S
14、ubsidiary assigns priority to the lowest jurisdictional level of action consistent with effectiveness. It also requires an important element of international cooperation. Countries seeking higher environmental standards abroad have the responsibility to seek them multilaterally, which is matched by
15、the obligation of other countries to cooperate in such efforts. International Cooperation. The most desirable forms of international cooperation will avoid conflicts. Efforts might include technology sharing, capacity build-up, transfers of resources, debt relief, and an opening of protected markets
16、. When international disputes arise, the procedures for handling them must be capable of addressing the interests of the environment, development and the economy together. Science and Precaution. The basis for many necessary decisions can be provided by science. Certain problems, however, will have
17、to be addressed in the face of uncertainty and scientific disagreement. When mistakes may have serious consequences, a precautionary and adaptive approach must be adopted. Openness. Openness, i.e. timely, easy and full access to information for all those affected, and public participation in the dec
18、ision-making process, is essential for the practical implementation of policies, but also to minimize the risk that trade policies be manipulated to favor inefficient producers. While structures for openness are increasingly evident at the national level, there has not been a comparable development
19、for issues of an international nature. Efficiency and Cost Internalization. To gain efficiency with respect to the elimination of trade barriers is the focus of the GATT/WTO. Discussions within the Uruguay Round succeeded in a further limitation to trade barriers by (a) the widening of the multilate
20、ral trading system: inclusion of services, common regulation of international property, and the general binding nature of special agreements for all WTO-signatories (such as, being most relevant to our concern, the Agreement on Technical Barriers to Trade (TBT), and (b) the deepening of the multilat
21、eral trading system encompassing the reduction of custom tariffs, changing the tariff structure, increased tariff bindings, and the (partial) success in re-integration of agriculture and in new regulation of trade in textiles? Efforts to gain efficiency with respect to the use of environmental resou
22、rces seek to overcome externalities of different geographic scope and accordingly need to be addressed at different jurisdictional levels. Depending on the issue, the task is the responsibility of local agencies, national governments and multilateral or global environmental cooperation of government
23、s (multilateral environmental agreements). The task is not one of the duties of the WTO bodies. However, the framing of cost internalization at each jurisdictional level often raises concerns on either reduced competitiveness or increased trade impediments. The international trade framework needs to
24、 accommodate and not hinder development of effective long-term welfare-oriented environmental policy. As the conclusions on how the WTO can accomplish this objective differ according to the geographic scope of the environmental problem, the issue of the WTO accommodating environmental regulation sha
25、ll be covered below under the heading “subsidiary“. Equity Beyond intergenerational distribution, the equity aspect equally concerns intergenerational issues within and between countries. While international trade has impacts on all of these distributional issues, its most evident and probably stron
26、gest effect is on the last one, inter-country equity, which we shall focus on. Links of inter-country transfer between industrialized and developing countries exist in the trade of goods and services, the transfer of technology, investment, and financial support. While financial support is in genera
27、l declining, the focus remains primarily on market access, but also on investment and technology transfer. Within the recent trade and environment discussion it is often suggested that a shift be made from the “sticks“ of import restrictions via product standards or border adjustment measures to the
28、 “carrots“ of increased technology transfer to developing countries as a means of reducing conflict. In that respect, technology transfer is covered by the Trade and Environment Committee and its predecessor EMIT. Of quantitatively much larger importance, however, is market access. Here, the WTO sti
29、ll has quite a way to go. When our concern is with developing and, particularly, least developed countries, we ought to look at two recent agreements that concern the main export categories of these countries, the Agreement on Agriculture and the new Textile Agreement. Sent evaluated the current sit
30、uation in the following way:” The numerous exception clauses in the Agricultural Agreement together with the obvious effort of the individual WTO countries to maintain the protectionist situation of agriculture will put a big question mark over the re-integration of trade in agriculture for sometime
31、 to come“ and “The objective of the new Textile Agreement is primarily the abolition of the import quotas. The Agreement reached again contains the possibility of numerous safeguard clauses in the event of market disturbances so that no wide reaching changes are to be reckoned with here. 4 For many
32、production sectors, measures that restrict market access simultaneously are likely to have negative environmental implications in developing countries. Accordingly, within the Trade and Environment Committee, many delegations put forward that: “. measures such as tariff escalation, non-tariff barrie
33、rs and trade-distorting production and export subsidies could have adverse effects on the environment and on sustainable development, particularly in developing countries, by holding back income growth, impeding exports of labor-intensive (potentially more environmentally friendly) goods, and obligi
34、ng producers to resort to alternative, more environmentally damaging activities, notably intensifying output of natural resource-based products to raise export earnings.“ Considering tariff escalation for example, although improvements had been achieved in the Uruguay Round negotiations, the subject
35、 remains a serious barrier to market access in a number of key sectors, such as forestry, mining, fisheries and agriculture. This makes developing countries efforts to diversify exports more difficult, which is regrettable from both abrade and an environmental perspective. On the other hand, it is c
36、rucial to recognize the trade liberalization wit benefit the state of the environment only if the necessary environmental policy is in place or is introduced in a parallel and complementary development. Otherwise trade works to magnify the impacts of environmental policy failings. 译文 国际贸易的管制和可持续发展的前
37、景 资料来源 ： http:/ 作者： 卡尔 史帝宁戈 国内外的可持续发展已经公认的越来越依赖于国际贸易体制。为了可持续发展， WTO 的协定和其成员之间持续不断的关于贸易和环境的讨论也因此被审核并依照规矩被国际协会提上了议程。其中分析了 近期 WTO 中存在的一些弊端，指出了未来 WTO 发展中的基础。 尽管国际贸易和可持续发展之间的关系非常明显而且重要，但是它一直到20 世纪 90 年代才开始被国际社团所公认，直到 1994 年 4 月乌拉圭回合最终文件中才被明确规定出来。在谈判过程中， GATT 关于环境问题和国际贸易工作小组在 1991 年召开了自 1971 创立以来的第一次会议。与乌
38、拉圭回合最终文件签署的同时，关于环境和贸易的决定也在 1994 被签署，其中陈述了关于环境和贸易委员会的工作计划。认识到它的重要性之后，当贸易和环境委员会正式建立后， WTO 协议在 1995 年 1 月 1 日正式生效前。出现了 WTO 预备委员会前期形态并且从 1994 年 5 月到十一月之间召开了 5 次会议。 CTE 在 96 年的 4 月举行了 8 次会议来准备在 96 年 12 月的第一次 WTO 部长会议报告。 这次会议将会回顾委员会未来工作的命令和目标。许多人都预计着下一轮的贸易谈判是否会是“绿色”的 . 在这篇文章中，我们会首先退一步来考虑地区贸易和可持续发展前景的基本原则，
39、尤其是，加拿大可持续发展国际研究学会的一系列的发展准则。我们会从这些准则的角度出发，评价最近贸易构造以及最近贸易和环境的讨论来明确哪里的可持续发展已经成熟和哪里的资源 紧缺需要解决。 基本上有三点关键性的设想：贫穷问题的减轻，环境方针的重要性和贸易壁垒对于可持续发展的阻碍。国际可持续发展委员会提出了以下几点来发展友好贸易及推进可持续发展： 效率和成本的主观化。有效地利用资源既是努力发展拜托贫困的核心，又能减少稀缺自然资源的流失。有效资源的利用需要价格能完全反映出成本，但如今，由于逃避掉的环境成本和贸易壁垒，使物品的价格扭曲了。 公正。当不公正和贫穷使得环境破坏加剧，尤其是在发展中国家。贸易自由
40、化同时带来了关税和投资的增长，这已经被当成发展中国家增加资源的一种手段。 环境的完善。环境的标准并不能通过各种主观成本（比如：不可回收）完全反应出来。特殊保护措施虽然必要，但是在一般贸易条款中是不需要的。他们需要通过国际间的商讨结果来制定标准。 子公司。指派的优先会给那些行动和效率有最低司法权的子公司。当然他也依赖于国际间合作的一个重要因素。国家寻求更高环境标准来对他们的多变贸易负责，这和周边其他国家的合作不谋而合。 国际合作。国际间最理想的合作方式就是避免冲突。其中可能要做出的努力包括：技术分享、资金增多、资源运输、缓解债务以及开放保护性市场。当国际争论加剧时，处理程序必须能够 将环境利润。
41、发展和经济结合起来。 科技和预防措施。许多必要决定的基础是由科技决定的。然而，某些问题，不得不面对不确定和科学的异议。当错误可能会有严重的后果时，就需要采用一个有预防并且能适用的方法。 开放。开放，换言之就是及时、简单以及对于所有那些有倾向或者已经参与的公众决定过程的信息的充分取得，这些对实际政治工作的开展时必不可少的，而且同时将贸易政策被没有效率的决策者操作的风险降到最低。同时，开放的结构也在国家水平上日益明显，这不再是一个类似关于一个国家本质问题的发展了。 效率和成本内在化 为了提高效率，关 于贸易壁垒的消除是总协定 /世贸组织的焦点。乌拉圭回合谈判进一步限制了贸易壁垒，这通过两个方面来完
42、成：（ a）扩大多边贸易体制：包括服务，国际地产的常见规则，对所有世贸组织成员特殊协定的一般约束性（例如：让我们最关心的是，技术性贸易壁垒（ TBT）协定），和（ b）包含的削减关税的多边贸易制度的加深，关税结构的调整，增加关税约束，农业在整合和纺织业贸易规则的（部分）成功。 为了努力提高效率，探索克服不同地理范围的外部环境的关于环境资源的使用，需要解决不同等级的管辖权。依靠这个问题，这个任务是当地机构，本国政府和政府 的多边的或全球的环境合作（多边环境协定）的责任，并不是世贸组织构成的其中一个任务。然而，各等级管辖权的成本内在化的框架经常加大关注在要么降低竞争力，要么增加贸易阻碍中。国际贸易框架需要容纳和不阻碍有效的长期福利的环境政策的发展。作为世贸组织如何能够根据不同环境问题的地理范围完成这个目标的结论，世界贸易组织包含的环境方面的规则的发行应该包括在“基层决策”标题的下面。 权益 除了两代间的分布之外，权益方面同样关系到国家内和国家间相互的争端问题。当国际贸易影响所有这些分布的问题时，它最明显和可能最大的影响是最后 一个，也就是国家间的权益是我们应该作为焦点的。国家间的联系在工业化和发展中国家间转移，这体现在货物和服务的贸易，技术、投资和资金支持的转移。当资金支持在一般性下降时，重心仍然主要在市场准入上，但是也在资金和技术转移上。
