1、 外文翻译 原文 World Trade and International Trade Material Source: Author: Ted Alax In todays complex economic world, neither individuals nor nations are self-sufficient. Nations have utilized different economic resources; people have developed different skills. This is the foundation of world trade and
2、economic activity. As a result of this trade and activity, international finance and banking have evolved. For example, the United States is a major consumer of coffee, yet it does not have the climate to grow any or its own. Consequently, the United States must import coffee from countries (such as
3、 Brazil, Colombia and Guatemala) that grow coffee efficiently. On the other hand, the United States has large industrial plants capable of producing a variety of goods, such as chemicals and airplanes, which can be sold to nations that need them. If nations traded item for item, such as one automobi
4、le for 10,000 bags of coffee, foreign trade would be extremely cumbersome and restrictive. So instead of batter, which is trade of goods without an exchange of money, the United State receives money in payment for what it sells. It pays for Brazilian coffee with dollars, which Brazil can then use to
5、 buy wool from Australia, which in turn can buy textiles Great Britain, which can then buy tobacco from the United State. Foreign trade, the exchange of goods between nations, takes place for many reasons. The first, as mentioned above is that no nation has all of the commodities that it needs. Raw
6、materials are scattered around the world. Large deposits of copper are mined in Peru and Zaire, diamonds are mined in South Africa and petroleum is recovered in the Middle East. Countries that do not have these resources within their own boundaries must buy from countries that export them. Foreign t
7、rade also occurs because a country often does not have enough of a particular item to meet its needs. Although the United States is a major producer of sugar, it consumes more than it can produce internally and thus must import sugar. Third, one nation can sell some items at a lower cost than other
8、countries. Japan has been able to export large quantities of radios and television sets because it can produce them more efficiently than other countries. It is cheaper for the United States to buy these from Japan than to produce them domestically. According to economic theory, Japan should produce
9、 and export those items from which it derives a comparative advantage. It should also buy and import what it needs from those countries that have a comparative advantage in the desired items. Finally, foreign trade takes place because of innovation or style. Even though the United States produces mo
10、re automobiles than any other country, it still imports large numbers of autos from Germany, Japan and Sweden, primarily because there is a market for them in the United States. For most nations, exports and imports are the most important international activity. When nations export more than they im
11、port, they are said to have a favorable balance of trade. When they import more than they export, an unfavorable balance of trade exists. Nations try to maintain a favorable balance of trade, which assures them of the means to buy necessary imports.International trade is the exchange of goods and se
12、rvices produced in one country for goods and services produced in another country. There are several reasons for it. The distribution lf natural resources around the world is somewhat haphazard: some nations possess natural deposits in excess of their own requirements while other nations have none.
13、For example, Britain has large reserves of coal but lacks many minerals such as nickel, copper, aluminum etc, whereas the Arab states have vast oil deposits but little else. In the cultivation of natural products climates whereas others, such as citrus fruits, require a Mediterranean climate. Moreov
14、er, some nations are unable to produce sufficient of a particular product to satisfy a large home demand, for example, Britain and wheat. These are the reasons why international trade first began. With the development of manufacturing and technology, there arose another incentive for nations to exch
15、ange their products. It was found that it made economic sense for a nation to specialize in certain activities and produce those goods for which it had the most advantages, and to exchange those goods for the products of other nations which and advantages in different fields. This trade is based on
16、the principle of comparative advantage. The theory of comparative advantage, also called the comparative cost theory, was developed by David Ricardo, and other economists in the nineteenth century. It points out that trade between countries can be profitable for all, even if one of the countries can
17、 produce every commodity more cheaply. As long as there are minor, relative differences in the efficiency of producing a commodity even the poof country can have a comparative advantage in producing it. The paradox is best illustrated by this traditional example: the best lawyer in town is also the
18、best typist in town. Since this lawyer cannot afford to give up precious time from legal and typing matters. But the typists comparative disadvantage is least in typing. Therefore, the typist has a relative comparative advantage in typing. This principle is the basis of specialization into trades an
19、d occupations. At the same time, complete specialization may never occur even when it is economically advantageous. For strategic or domestic reasons, a country may continue to produce goods for which it does not have an advantage. The benefits lf specialization may also be affecting by transport co
20、sts: goods and raw materials have to be transported around the world and the cost of the transport narrows the limits between which it will prove profitable to trade. Another impediment to the free flow of goods between nations is the possible introduction of artificial barriers to trade, such as ta
21、riffs or quotas. In addition to visible trade, which involves the import and export lf goods and merchandise, there is also invisible trade, which involves the exchange of services between nations. Nations such as Greece and Norway have large marine fleets and provide transportation service. This is
22、 a kind of invisible trade. When an exporter arranges shipment, he rents space in the cargo compartment or a ship. The prudent exporter purchases insurance for his cargos voyage. While at sea, a cargo is vulnerable to many dangers. Thus, insurance is another service in which some nations specialize.
23、 Great Britain, because of the development of Lloyds of London, is a leading exporter of this service, earning fees for insuring other nations foreign trade. Some nations possess little in the way of exporter commodities or manufactured goods, but they have a mild and sunny climate. During the winte
24、r, the Bahamas attract large numbers of countries, who spend money for hotel accommodations, meals, taxis, and so on. Tourism, therefore, is another form of invisible trade. Invisible trade can be as important to some nations as the export of raw materials or commodities is to other. In both cases,
25、the nations as the export of raw materials or commodities is to other. In both cases, the nations earn money to buy necessities. International trade today little resembles European commerce as it existed between the 16th century and the 19th century. Trade in earlier times was conducted largely betw
26、een a mother country and its colonies. It was conducted according to strict mercantilist principles. The colonies were supposed to supply the mother country with raw materials, and they were expected to buy all finished goods from the mother country. Other forms of trade were forbidden to the coloni
27、es, but many of them evaded these restrictions. A result of the Industrial Revolution, which began in England in the 18th century, was the transformation of trade from a colonial exchange into a many sided international institution. Cottage industries gave way to mass production in factories. Railro
28、ads and steamships lowered the cost of transportation at the same time that new markets were being sought for the expanding output of goods. The Industrial Revolution also brought an end to mercantilist policies. The laissez-faire attitudes that emerged in their stead permitted businessmen to manufa
29、cture what they pleased and to trade freely with other nations. Trade was also stimulated by the growth of banking facilities, insurance companies, and improved commercial shipping and communications. The repeal of the Corn Laws by Great Britain in 1846 ended Britains longstanding policy of protecti
30、onism. During the 19th century, many European nations made commercial agreements with each other easing their tariff rates. Lower tariffs and the growth of population and industry caused trade to soar in the 19th century. In the 20th century two world wars and a major depression caused severe distur
31、bances in international trade. Nations, sensing a threat to their domestic economies, sought to protect themselves from further disturbances by erecting various barriers to trade. The situation became even worse after Great Britain abandoned the gold standard. The nations that were closely related t
32、o Britain, including most of the members of the Commonwealth of gold standard. As the means of making international payments broke down and trade restrictions increased, some countries had to resort to barter to obtain foreign goods. International trade was in such severe straits during the depressi
33、on that a World Economic Conference was held in 1933. This conference, however, was unable to halt a rash of currency devaluations, tariff increases, and quota arrangements. In 1934, U.S. Secretary of State Cordell Hull persuaded Congress to pass the Reciprocal Trade Agreements Act. This law authori
34、zed the President to negotiate tariff cuts with other nations. The Reciprocal Trade Act provided for protection of U.S. industries in the event foreign imports increased to such a degree that U.S. businesses were injured. This protection included peril point and escape clauses under which tariff cut
35、s could by refused of rescinded if a U.S. industry suffered economic hardship. Despite the protectionist clauses in the act, U.S. tariffs were substantially reduced. Shortly before the end of World War , members of the United Nations met at Bratton Woods, N.H. to discuss ways of reducing the financi
36、al barriers to international trade. The International Monetary Fund was established as a result of the conference. The fund was designed to encourage the growth of international trade by stabilizing currencies and their rate of foreign exchange. In the early postwar period, more than 20 nations met
37、in Geneva, Switzerland, to negotiate tariff reductions. When any two nations reached an agreement to reduce tariffs on a product, the benefits were extended to all participating nations. This was an application of the so-called most favored nation clause. The Geneva tariff agreements were written in
38、to the General Agreement on Tariffs and Trade (GATT). GATT also established standards for the conduct of international trade. For example, the agreement prohibits nations from placing quotas of limits on imports, except under very special circumstances. After World War a number of free trade areas w
39、ere formed to solve trade problems on a regional basis. Tariffs on goods moving within these areas were to be abolished. Some of the groups also erected a single tariff on the goods of outsiders coming into their common area. Such groups are called customs unions. The goal of all trade blocs was to
40、merge small political units into large geographic entities in which goods could be freely manufactured and sold. A large market area greatly stimulates economic growth and prosperity. These trade blocs are: Benelux, The European Coal and Steel Community (ECSC), the European Economic Community (EEC o
41、r Common Market), the European Free Trade Association (EFTA), the Council for Mutual Economic Assistance (COMECOM), the Latin American Free Trade Association (LAFTA), the Central American Common Market (CACM), the Caribbean Free Trade Area (CARIFTA), the Caribbean Community and Common Market (CARICO
42、M). 译文 世界贸易和国际贸易 资料来源 :海归网 作者： Ted Alax 在当今复杂的经济世界个人和国家都不是自给自足。国家利用不同的经济资源，人们开发了不同的技能。这是世界贸易和经济活动的基础。因为这些贸易和活动，已经导致了国际金融和银行的演化。 例如，美国是主要使用者的咖啡，但它并没有气候条件自己去种植咖啡。因此，美国必须从高效种植咖啡的国家（如巴西、哥伦比亚、危地马拉）引进的咖啡。在另一方面，美国有 大量的工厂有能力生产各种货物，例如化工和飞机， 可以出售给需 要它们的国家。如果国家交易 是货物和货物 之间的交易， 如10000 袋咖啡 换一辆 汽车 ， 外贸会非常麻烦和制约。 美
43、国得到金钱作为卖掉的商品的支付方式，而不是用交易量来衡量。 它用美元来买 巴西咖啡，巴西可以随后 可以用美元从澳大利亚来买羊毛 ，然后可以买到 英国的纺织品 ，英国又可以从美国买烟草。 外贸是各国之间的商品交换， 发生的原因是多方面的。 首先，没有一个国家的商品能满足国家本身的所有需要，各种原料分散在世界各地，大型铜矿分布在秘鲁和扎伊尔，南非生产钻石，中东石油资源丰富，自己国 家 内部 没有的生产 资源，必须向生产这些资源的国家 购买。 对外贸易的发生也 因为每个国家没有足够的能力生产所有满足本国需要的产品，虽然美国是主要的糖 的 生产国，但是其国内消耗远远超过其生产能力，因此其必须进口。 第
44、三，一个国家可以卖一个比其他国家较低的成本的一些项目。日本已经能够出口收音机和电视机，因为它可以比其他国家更有效的大量生产它们。美国从日本购买比在国内生产这些便宜。根据经济理论，日本应该生产和出口的是从它派生的一个比较优势的项目，还应该购买那些在本国生产成本比其他国家高的产品。 最后，对外贸易 的发生是因为 需要 创新的产品。 尽管美国是世界上最大的汽车生产 国，但是仍需要从德国、日本、瑞典进口大量汽车，主要是为了满足本国的市场需要。 对于大多数国家，出口和进口是最重要的国际活动。当国家的出口多于进口，这是一种贸易顺差，当进口多于出口，是贸易逆差。联合国试图保持良好的贸易平衡，保证用必要的手段
45、来购买他们需要进口的货物，在一个国家生产的商品和服务在与另一个国家生产服务的交流，它有几个原因。 分布在世界各地的天然资源很不平衡，在一些国家有些资源拥有过多，而其他矿藏相对较少，甚至没有。例如，英国煤炭储量很大，但缺乏如镍 、 铜 、铝等多种矿物质 ， 而阿拉伯国家有丰富的石油储量 ，但其他资源几乎没有。在自然生物方面，如柑橘类水果，适合在地中海气候地区种植 。 此外，一些国家生产的某些产品不能满足本国的需要 。 例如，英国的小麦，这是贸易发生的原因之一。 随着制造技术的发展，因而产生了 一个国家鼓励交流它们的产品。结果发现，它使一个国家专门生产这些商品的活动，并为其中最有优势以换取其他国家
46、的产品和优势的货物， 在不同的领域有一定意义 。这种贸易是基于比较优势的原则。 对比较优势理论，也被称为成本比较理论 ， 是由大卫李嘉图 和 19 世纪的经济学家 发展的 。它指出，国家之间的贸易 对所有的国家都 可以有利可图，即使其中一个国家能生产 更便宜的 各种商品。在生产一种商品，甚至国家的效率，只要有轻微的相对的差异 就 可以 产生 它的比较优势。 这个论点通过 这个传统的例子 最好地被阐释 ：在城市 最好的律师亦是城里最好的打字员。由于该律师不能放弃法律和打字的 宝贵的时间。但相比打字员的劣势 至少 是打字。因此，打字员在打字上有相对比较优势。 这个原则是行业专业化和职业化的基础，即
47、使它在经济上是有利的，完成专业化可能永远不可能发生，处于战略的原因，一个国家可以继续生产它并不具有优势的商品。专业化的好处也可能影响了运输成本：商品和原材 料都必须在世界各地运输，运输成本的降低将证明它是有利可图的贸易。造成另一个国家的货物自由流动障碍可能是认为的障碍，如推行贸易关税或配额。 除了有形贸易，其中涉及货物出口和进口的商品也有无形贸易，其中涉及国家之间的服务交换。如希腊和挪威等国家运用大型海洋运输船队并提供服务。这就是一种无形贸易。当一个出口商安排装运，他租了一条船货仓，并为出口货物购买了稳健的保险。而在海上，货物很容易受到很多危险。因此，保险是一项服务。这成为一些国家的专业。比如
48、英国由于劳合社伦敦的发展，而成为这项服务的主要出口国，以赚取其他投保 国家的外贸费。 在一些国家内，他们拥有的商品或制成品吃口的方式很少，但他们又一个温和晴朗的气候。在冬季，用旅游来吸引游客的国家，由于酒店住宿，餐费，出租车大量资金等，是旅游形成另一种无形的外贸形式。因此，这是在无形贸易方面可以作为重要的原材料或商品出口的一些国家。在这种情况下，作为原料或商品出口的国家，又必须挣钱买生活必需品。 这有点类似于 在 16 世纪和 19 世 纪就存在国际贸易欧洲之间的贸易，在较早时候进行的大部分贸易是与一国的殖民地。这是严格按照重商主义的原则的调查。殖民地应该提供母国需要的原材料，然后他们购 买全
49、部的从母国生产的货物。 工业革命，是 18 世纪从英国开始的，是从贸易到多方面的国际交流机构的殖民地转变。平民工业让位给群众生产工厂。在铁路和轮船运输费用降低的同时，新的市场正在为要扩大运输的货物寻找更低的运输成本。工业革命也结束了重商主义政策和自由放任的态度，在出现的代之而起的准制造商让他们高兴，并与其他国家进行自由贸易。贸易也刺激了银行信贷的增长，保险公司，商业和改善航运和通信等行业也得到发展。 该法 鼓舞 废除了英国的保护主义的长期政策。在 19 世纪，许多欧洲国家做出的每一个宽松的关税税率及其他商业协议。降 低关税和人口增长和工业的发展造成贸易在 19 世纪迅速腾飞。在 20 世纪发生的两次世界大战和大萧条使国际贸易受到严重干扰。联合国，预感到其国内经济受到威胁，于是通过建立自己的各种贸易壁垒以寻求进一步的保护。情况变得更糟后英国放弃了金本位制。与这密切相关的英国国家，包括黄金的联合体成员，以此作为国际支付手段的他们因为破裂和贸易限制的增加，一些国家不得不求助于物物交换，以获取外国商品。 国 际贸易在这种严重的困境，于 1933 年在一个世界经济会议上举行的会议中形成的，但并未能阻止货币贬值和配额
