1、 外文翻译 原文 A Cluster Approach towards Enhancing Chinese-American Trade Opportunities Material Source: International Journal of Business and Management Author: William J. Lawrence and Weidong Sun Abstract For some time now, China has relied heavily on industrial clusters to create an international comp
2、etitive edge. While the program has been largely successful, China has increasingly had to cope with severe accusations from its trading partners who claim a policy of dumping and selling low quality products with flaws, and hazardous outcomes. Claims are also made that China has not been as mindful
3、 of its resource utilization, environment impact, and overall economic efficiency as it should be. The thrust of this paper recognizes that opportunities exist for both the US and China to use this period as one of enhanced communication and cooperative ventures and planning initiatives. It is a hyp
4、othesis that cluster analysis offers a major vehicle that shows how all nations can begin to meet the needs of their people and do it in an environmentally and economically responsible manner. Keywords: Industrial cluster, Smooth trade, The US-China 1. An Overview of Industrial Clusters in China Chi
5、na has created a fairly sophisticated system of industrial clusters in many areas centered principally on their natural market share within domestic as well as global markets. This policy is most evident in the eastern and southern coastline regions, for example, Zhejiang province, which is in the s
6、outheast of China. Zhejiang Province has more than 500 villages and towns, many of which have formed their own unique cluster. The total output of these villages and towns accounts for roughly half of the provinces industry product. The cluster phenomena consisting of a variety of industries has bee
7、n created in Guangdong province as well. It has an estimated 60 towns out of all 240 towns in Guangdong that have formed a rather large scale of clusters primarily within traditional industry fields. Moreover, the southern areas of Jiangsu province have formed several IT industry clusters, Jingjin c
8、ounty has formed shoe industry clusters, Shouguang county has formed a vegetable industry cluster, Qinhou county has formed a wool industry cluster and Zhongguan village has also formed an IT industry cluster. However, with time many management problems in the industrial clusters began to emerge, of
9、ten resulting from the low management skills of entrepreneurs, out date of technology or increasing labor cost. In addition, a growing low commitment of working hard, effective mutual cooperation, to mention only a few, began to further exacerbate the problems. Perhaps this phenomenon can be categor
10、ized as management deficiencies suffering from excessive growth. It is however, time for clustered firms to upgrade their management level and for the clustering process to move from the low industrial levels to the relatively higher one. 2. Reasons behind the Growth of a Cluster Approach towards In
11、dustrial Development and Trade Professor David L. Barkley and Professor Mark S. Henry in a 2001 paper concluded that there were basically four important advantages underlying industrial clusters including: a) strengthening localization economies, b) facilitating industrial reorganization, c) encoura
12、ging networking among enterprises d) permitting greater focusing of public resources. Their analysis shows the benefits from the cluster from the angle of the macroeconomic perspective. There exists one other intrinsic strength that provides an incentive for an individual enterprise to join an indus
13、trial cluster. We have chosen to use a hypothesized case to make our point. Assume that there are two separate and distinct retail merchants who are each selling cool drinking water along a linear beach. Let us further assume that; a) the merchandise they sell is of the same quality and sold at the
14、same price; b) consumers are scattered evenly along the beach; c) customers are time and convenient oriented and always prefer to buy cool drinking water from a nearby stall; d) Our two merchants have an exclusive agreement prohibiting any other competitors entering this market. In order to describe
15、 our model conveniently, we define that the beach length is 1, the left point being 0 and the right point being 1. According to geographic optimization, merchant one would locate his stall at 1/4 and merchant 2 would locate at 3/4 because doing so would minimize overall consumer convenience giving e
16、ach merchant equal access to their respective market share. Although such an arrangement seems fair and reasonable, the reality itself is nevertheless not so simple. Both merchants do the same business, creating an unavoidable competition between them. Absent an agreement to the contrary, each merch
17、ant would have an incentive to relocate his stall a little further down the beach towards the territory of the others. He would do so in hopes of winning some consumers from the other. The other merchant might also consider taking a similar action towards the competitors territory. Therefore, the in
18、teresting competitive forces provided a natural incentive such that both merchants will gradually move their stalls toward each other until they each arrive at the middle point of the beach. A clustering agreement however, would have both merchants agree to an overall location pattern, better design
19、ed to serves the customers and their time. 3. The Impact of Chinas Industrial Cluster Policies on US/China Trade Commencing with Chinas 2001 accession into the WTO the growth in Chinas exports has increased annually, going from 20.1% in 2001 to 40% of its economy in 2008. The trend strongly reflects
20、 the overall dependence of Chinas economy on its export trade which further ties Chinese growth to that of its trading partners. Besides, the high export volume also tends to cause main trading partners trade deficit. At present, trade imbalance between US and China is a top concern in US-China rela
21、tion. Statistics provided by the American Chamber of Commerce indicates that between 2001and 2008, the US trade deficit with China increased from $83.10 to $268.04 billion (excluding service trade), accounting for 28.8 of the US total trade deficit. Asking China to take measures to increase inputs f
22、rom America and decrease trade surplus to the US has become a strong argument from American authorities. Strong concerns continue to exist on the part of all trading nations that Chinas increasing demand of oil and other energy resources may cause harm to the international economic order. Furthermor
23、e, the US worries that Chinas huge exports may further erode US job losses, a growing concern throughout American labor markets. It has been estimated that approximately 70%-80% of Chinas exports come from Chinas current industrial clusters. Therefore, if we want to solve Chinas foreign trade proble
24、ms and overall balance of trade, we must pay close attention to industrial clusters and find ways to better distribute this output within Chinas borders as well as with its trading partners. 4. Industrial Clusters and the Balance of Trade Issue 4.1 The trade issue Major criticism of Chinas trade and
25、 economic development strategy has come primarily from its major trading partner, the United States. The US has also criticized China for dumping, and selling merchandise of low quality and in some cases with serious production and or design flaws. Criticism has also pointed towards Chinas concentra
26、tion on economic growth at the expense of a more rational utilization of its resources, further damaging the environment, and not being as mindful of economic efficiency as Chinese planners and manufactures might have been. The World Bank cited 16 Chinese cities out of 20 as the worlds most polluted
27、. In a recent study of carbon dioxide emissions, the most damaging of all greenhouse gases, a Dutch institute (Netherlands Environmental Agency, 2007) concluded that China has surpassed the US and is now the largest CO2 emitter in the world. This listing was based on the overviews on energy use as c
28、ompiled by British Petroleum. Anything China can do to reduce its footprint in this area would be most welcomed as a member of the world community, Clusters, well thought out and implemented with an objective towards technological and environmental efficiencies offer one opportunity to do just this.
29、 4.2 Probable solutions (1) Among the WTO member states, the US has the second largest number of anti-dumping cases against China which has led to much confusion and debate within Chinese business leaders. China recognizes that America is implementing increased protectionism. But President Obama sai
30、d, “We cant go back to the era where the Chinese or the Germans or other countries just are selling everything to us, but were not selling anything to them“. Just on Sep.11, 2009, President Obama announced that he would impose a 35 percent tariff on automobile and light-truck tires imported from Chi
31、na. Meanwhile, China, not unexpectedly, also took some countermeasures in reaction to this dispute. To some extent, the root reason for the dispute lies in the different cost and quality standards of merchandise that both sides hold. According to the WTO rules, as long as a country is not recognizes
32、 as a market economy country, any WTO member can measure the dumping extent of its enterprises by utilizing a third countrys (substitute country) prices, not its domestic prices or costs. Therefore, since China is not recognized as market economy country by the US, the domestic prices of Chinas prod
33、ucts will not be recognized as well, hence, the US has usually taken comparable prices of a third country to measure the dumping extent of Chinese enterprises, but China argues that this measure is unfair because the third countrys cost may higher than that in China. So, in order to know Chinese mer
34、chandise cost structure and solve the anti-dumping dispute permanently, the US and China need to find a better way to negotiate a more reasonable and workable comparative strategy towards evaluating these exchanges. However, the most important and also the first step, we think, is to implement a str
35、onger and more workable system to communicate and cooperate. Only when both countries trust each other and consider the problems as faced by our trading partners can trade issues be solved easily. (2) Chinese production has historically been associated with the output of relatively inexpensive goods
36、 that traditionally relied on an abundant and low cost labor supply to meet the demands of the market. As Chinese industrial policies developed, and became more capital intensive a significantly higher level of productivity was realized. China rapidly became more diversified in terms of its producti
37、ve capacity and output choices. The conscious movement towards cluster production has made a more diversified production mix possible as well as a natural outgrowth of modernization. These changes in Chinese production capacity occurred as the visible shift towards a more service based economy becam
38、e a reality throughout the American economy. This emerging dynamic has created a more diversified demand for imported goods on the part of the American consumer, products which are now almost exclusively produced outside of domestic American production facilities. Chinese products have been warmly r
39、eceived by the American consumer. However, the America market has also become more diversified with some consumers seeking high quality merchandise while others continue to seek low-priced merchandise. This change has provided a great opportunity for China as well as the need for its producers to pr
40、epare a wider range of products to meet this new demand for imports on the part of the United States. One result of this change is that the more diversified demand for any given product must now recognize the need for different levels of quality reflecting different pricing levels as well, creating
41、a wider choice for the American consumer who will then be able to select their desired merchandise at the price and quality levels most desired. It might at first appear that this diversification will break down the economies of scale enjoyed by the cluster approach to production as currently implem
42、ented and indeed even being expanded. This does not however, need to be the case. Upgrading and diversifying the industrial clusters production level will place upon the manufacturer a great need for more efficient inputs, as well as intensified research and development, to improve techniques as wel
43、l as technology, the implementation of stricter management measures and improve the competence of employees, all of which open great opportunities for cluster collaboration between American and Chinese management. In the past, China managed to overcome these limitations mainly by absorbing foreign c
44、apital or through the creation of temporary joint ventures. The current global financial crisis has significantly reduced opportunities for this strategy to continue, indeed, it is now recognized that capital funds can only solve some these contemporary production problems. A conscious effort at enh
45、ancing a targeted industrial clusters core competence is most important, and can best be accomplished by taking advantage of American advanced knowledge and by attracting American talents to China to augment Chinese production, engineering, and product design. China has the labor costs advantage, wh
46、ile America has technology and capital advantage. A comprehensive mutually beneficial merging of both advantages is certain to transform and enhance the Chinese industrial cluster. A more aggressive merger of American and Chinese manufacturing and administration skills is also an aid to propel the t
47、ransition towards smoother overall trade relations. This strategy is directly in line with Porters concept of geographic clusters, all designed to enhance productivity and minimize resource utilization. According to five sets of actors composing cluster, Chinese clusters can combine with American co
48、mpanies, research communities and financial institutions to group a global cluster or upgrade the primitive one. (3) Any new ideas involving economic development or production must now take its environmental footprint directly into consideration. All nations must accept the fact that we live on a fi
49、nite planet with finite resources. For the past 15 years China has witnessed a rapid rate of growth that has moved it into third place among our worlds economies. As the world gets ever smaller in terms of the intellectual and time components of exchange, China needs to better focus on conservation of world resources such that the most efficient production processes flow from a global standard and not only a national one. At the same time, America needs to become a more active and willing partner to Chinese economic reform options. As one of the worlds most rapid
