1、 外文翻译 原文 Assessing the degree of internationalization. Some conceptual issues Material Source: EIBA Conference,2002 Author: Grazia Ietto-Gillies Abstract. The paper analyses different dimensions of measures of the degree of internationalisation in the context of different perspectives on internation
2、alisation. The following perspectives on internationalisation are considered in particular: (a) the level of aggregation of the economy; (b) the internationalisation mode; and (c) the type of activity being internationalised. As regards measuring the degree of internationalisation the following dime
3、nsions are considered relevant: (i) the intensity level of internationalisation in relation to the overall size of the activity or economy; and (ii) the level of geographical extensity of the international activities. The paper argues that the choice of specific indices crucially depends on the type
4、 of effects we want to assess and, in particular, on the theoretical approach we have regarding specific effects. The latter point is argued with the aid of examples. 1. Introduction The assessment of degree of actual and potential internationalisation has been the subject of quite a few pieces of r
5、esearch (Dunning and Pearce, 1981; Ietto-Gillies,1989, 1998 and 2001; Sullivan, 1994; UNCTAD, 1995). It seems therefore appropriate to ask ourselves questions about the way we assess the degree of internationalisation and what the conceptual problems behind such an assessment are. This is an issue r
6、elevant for firms involved or wishing to be involved in the internationalisation of their activities as well as for policy makers operating at the local, regional or national level. On the latter point in particular, we should note that policies are designed with a view to the effects of the interna
7、tionalisation process. More specifically they are designed with a view to enhance the positive effects and discourage/eliminate the negative ones. This necessarily presupposes that we know the effects of the internationalisation processes. However, knowledge of the effects presupposes that we unders
8、tand the theoretical linkages of cause/effect behind the processes and that we are in a position to make comparisons between different strategies, modes, countries regions or times. All these issues have a bearing on our views on the specific measures and indicators of the degree of internationalisa
9、tion. Within this perspective, the main aims of this paper are as follows: To highlight some conceptual issues underlying the assessment of the degree of internationalisation To analyse how various approaches to the measurement of such a degree are connected with the type of effects we want to asses
10、s and with the underlying theories we have about causes and effects The paper is structured in the following five parts: 1. Analysis of different perspectives on internationalisation 2. Analysis of different dimensions on measures of the degree of internationalization 3. Effects of internationalisat
11、ion 4. Linkages between theoretical aspects of the effects and measurements of the degree of internationalisation: some examples 5. Conclusions 2. Different perspectives on internationalisation Internationalization can be viewed from various perspectives. In particular: (a) The degree of aggregation
12、 at which we want to operate. Firm or industry levels: large companies and/or SMEs; the macroeconomy (at the local, regional or national levels). (b) The internationalization mode we are interested in: trade; FDI; internal and external business networks; porfolio investment. (c) The type of activiti
13、es that are internationalised and in particular whether they are backward or forward activities in the vertical chain of production, or whether they are part of horizontal expansion into foreign countries. The choice regarding the degree of aggregation depends on the specific research project and pr
14、oblem one is working on and the type of effects to be analysed. Similarly with the internationalisation mode chosen for investigation. In this case, however, there are considerable complications due to the strong interconnections between the various modes. One internationalisation mode is likely to
15、affect others either in a complementary or substitution relationship. Moreover, the effects and relationship can be contemporaneous or evolve in a time sequence. These relationships and effects are particularly strong in the case of trade and FDI (Cantwell,1994; Ietto-Gillies, 2001: ch. 2). The type
16、 of activity being internationalised has relevant connotations for: (a) the way production is organized and the various stages in the chain allocated to subsidiaries and countries; (b) how such allocation relates to the availability of skills and labour in various localities; (c) how SMEs may enter
17、the production chain organized by larger TNCs; (d) how production is organised within the company; (e) the division of labour within the company, industry, countries; (f) how such organization and division of labour is affected by the new technologies. These three perspectives are not mutually exclu
18、sive. Various combinations of their components are possible according to the specific problem(s) we are interested in. 3. Two dimensions on the degree of internationalization In the development of specific indices, the perspectives mentioned in the previous section are, of course, relevant because t
19、hey define the boundaries of our specific research. However, whatever these boundaries, and therefore, whatever the level of aggregation, internationalisation mode and type of activity we want to concentrate on, there are two specific dimensions on the degree of internationalisation which are both r
20、elevant in the construction of indices. They are: The degree of intensity of foreign activities with respect to the size of domestic activities (local, regional or national) The degree of geographical extensity that is the degree to which the activity extends to many countries or regions. By the deg
21、ree of intensity I mean the degree to which activities are internationalised in relation to the overall size of those activities within a specific industry or country or region. For example, the extent of foreign sales as a proportion of all the companies sales or the extent of the countrys foreign
22、investment in relation to the size of the domestic economy (whether measured by GDP or GDFCF). It should be noted that most intensity indices effectively measure the degree of foreign projection (degree of foreignness) of the specific activity considered. This is because the foreign activities are u
23、sually considered independently of the number of countries in which they take place. This approach essentially focuses on the dichotomy between activity abroad and activity at home (or total activity). There are, in the literature, many indices based on this concept of intensity. Some are constructe
24、d by using a single variable as a measure of foreign activities such as sales or employment or profits (Dunning and Pearce, 1981). Dunning (1996) uses three single variables indices based on assets, employment and R however, it also provides the data and indices for each component (assets, sales and
25、 employment) for the world top 100 TNCs. Updated indices and their analyses have been published annually in the UNCTAD World Investment Report since 1995. Single variables intensity indices at the macro level are also published annually in the World Investment Reports (Appendices) in the form of rat
26、ios of FDI to GDP or to GDFCF for countries and regions. Moreover, UNCTAD (2001a) develops a new multi- variables FDI index aimed at comparing the countries ability to attract FDI. The variable chosen for the foreign activity, of course, varies according to the level of aggregation chosen (such as f
27、irm or country variables) or the internationalization mode the researchers wish to concentrates on: trade or foreign investment or number of alliances etc. In some cases both inward and outward variables are considered together (Ietto-Gillies, 1989) in the attempt to capture the impact of multinatio
28、nality as a whole (by both foreign and domestic MNCs) on the domestic economy. The degree of extensity aims to assess the geographical scope of the internationalisation process. It usually results in indicators of: (i) the number of countries into which the company operates or the country as a whole
29、 invests or trades with; or (ii) the degree of spatial concentration of activities; or (iii) the degree of gravitation of foreign activities towards specific regions or areas. Various normalization methods can be used in any of these approaches. Specific indicators of the degree of international geo
30、graphical/spatial extensity related to (i), (ii) and (iii) are constructed in the following ways. (i) Ratio of number of countries in relation to a potential number in which investment could take place (Ietto-Gillies, 1998 and 2001: ch. 4 and 5). (ii) Concentration measures such as the Herfindhal in
31、dex (Davies and Lyons, 1996: chs 7 and 11; Ietto-Gillies, 2001: ch.4). (iii) Gravitation indices which assess the extent to which the foreign activity gravitates towards a specific region rather than being equally spread among all (Petri,1994; Ietto-Gillies et.al., 2000) Similarly to the intensity i
32、ndices, any index related to the extensity dimension can be considered at various levels of aggregation (such as firms or countries) and for a variety of internationalisation modes (such as trade or FDI). It is possible to combine intensity and extensity dimensions in the assessment of international
33、isation and therefore to combine the geographical/spatial dimension of the activities with the degree of intensity of the same activity. The gravitation indices attempt to capture both dimensions. In terms of specific empirics, indices can be constructed using cross section data or panel data. They
34、therefore allow comparisons at a specific point in time, for example between different firms (UNCTAD, 1995 or Ietto-Gillies, 2001: ch. 4); or for the same units (firms or countries) thorough time (UNCTAD, various World Investment Reports, Ietto-Gillies, 1989 and 2001: ch. 5). 4. Effects of internati
35、onal activities At the surface level, the indices are designed to make comparisons across units firms, industries or countries at a point in time or through time. At a deeper level,the indices are always, directly or indirectly used to draw comparative inference about some effects of international a
36、ctivities. The assessment of the effects has strong theoretical connotations. There are implicit or explicit theories behind the effects as well as theories behind the reasons for foreign activities (Buckley, 1981; Ietto-Gillies, 1992; Cantwell, 2000). This means that any indicator of internationali
37、sation that aims to shed light on the effects, must take account of the theories underpinning those effects. Each of the three perspectives considered in section 2 has several components each of which can be combined with any of those from other perspectives to arrive at specific indicators of inter
38、nationalisation. Given that it is possible to construct many indices according to the three perspectives illustrated above and that there are a variety of components within each perspective, the question arises as to how we decide on the best indicators. Much depends on the following: (a) what effec
39、ts we are interested in; (b) what theoretical explanations we have regarding those effects; and (c) how we link those theoretical aspects to the indicators. At the more practical level, once we focus on a specific approach to the development and construction of indices, we then have to confront the
40、problem of availability of data. There is a large literature on the effects of international activities and indeed there are many types of effects. Specifically the effects could refer to one or more of the following: Firms Industries Macroeconomic elements: trade; balance of payments; employment; g
41、rowth Other actors in the economic system: workers; consumers; SMEs Innovation and technology Culture; environment; international relations etc. Effectiveness of economic policies An understanding of the effects is essential for the development of business strategies or governments policies. The lev
42、el of aggregation, the internationalisation mode and the type of activity to consider in the development of specific indices, crucially depend on the assessment of the effects and their implications for policies. 5. Conclusions The degree of internationalisation is not a unique concept. It is possib
43、le to develop many indices depending on the specific perspective used, on the type of effect we want to assess and on the theory behind effects and causes. Simple synthetic indicators can be useful and effective for comparisons whether these are cross sections of across time. However, they cannot ca
44、pture the rich dynamics of connections between modes (including their temporal seq uences), aggregation levels (firm, industry or macroeconomy) and types of activities being internationalised. Moreover, the dynamics of many cause/effects and our theoretical approach on them, may require that we take
45、 account of both the extensity and intensity dimensions in assessing the degree of internationalisation. A full assessment of the situation may lead to a variety of indices as well as less synthetic arguments. What is being emphasized here is the fact that: (a) the choice of indices crucially depend
46、s on the theoretical approach we have in the assessment of the effects.; and (b) both intensity and extensity dimensions in the degree of internationalisation may be necessary in drawing comparisons and assessing the effects of internationalisation. References Buckley, P.J. (1981), A Critical Review
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